Contents:

1. Introduction: educational and political gender inequalities in Sub-Saharan Africa
2. Evidence of the effects of female representation on women’s education
   1. Studies of political gender quotas in India and Africa
   2. Tentative evidence from Uganda
3. Pitfalls of political gender quotas
4. Conclusion
5. References

Introduction: educational and political gender inequalities in sub-Saharan Africa

On average, women have a Human Development Index (HDI) that is 5.9% lower than that of men. In less developed countries, the disparity grows to 13.8% [1]. The UNPD’s Gender Inequality Index (GII), which encompasses health, education, political representation and labour market outcomes, estimates the global loss in achievements due to gender inequalities to be 0.441 [1]. Yet, this figure is even higher in less developed regions, with Sub-Saharan Africa scoring 0.569 on the GII while OECD countries stand, on average, at 0.186 [1]. This article examines two gender gaps in particular–political and educational and the relationship between them.

Regarding education, though great headway has been made in the past two decades in achieving gender parity, girls remain disadvantaged in regions like Sub-Saharan Africa, where according to UNICEF in 2018, 94 girls for every 100 boys, attended primary school, and only 85 attended secondary school [2]. Furthermore, UNESCO shows that in 2016, 9 million girls, as compared with 6 million boys, are expected to remain completely excluded from education [3].

On the other hand, Sub-Saharan Africa has proven itself a frontrunner in gender equality in the political sphere. The 1990s and early 2000s saw many countries in the region adopt affirmative action policies, introducing women into local and national government bodies [4]. These policies have paved the way to achieving female representation figures that far surpass many Western countries. Rwanda most prominently tops global rankings at 61% female seats in parliament – its 30% quota in all decision-making bodies having been implemented in 2003. The likes of South Africa, Mozambique, Burundi, Uganda and more, all stand above 35% compared to the US at 24% for instance [5].

Sub-Saharan Africa’s leadership in women’s political representation and concurrent trailing in educational gender equality, begs the question of how these two domains of gender equality are related. In particular, can female political representation put more girls in school?

Evidence of the effects of female representation on women’s education

On the one hand, women in politics are likely to steer policy agendas towards improving the lives of fellow women [6][7][8]. On the other hand, their mere presence on the political stage may also generate a role model effect, lifting the educational aspirations of other women and girls [9]. Quantitative evidence on the effect of female representation on women’s outcomes in the developing world has largely come from India, due to the country’s policy of randomly assigning one-third of all villages to female-only leadership elections. Random assignment means that all other factors which could also determine women’s outcomes, should, on average, be equally distributed between the group of villages that was assigned to female leadership and the group that was not. Hence, on average, the only difference between these two groups should be whether they were subjected to the female leadership rule or not, and it thus becomes possible to credibly attribute subsequent changes in girls’ education to the presence of a female leader. Beaman et al. (2012) collected data several years after this policy was implemented which reveal that in villages reserved for female leadership, the gender gap in parental as well as girls’ own aspirations for their future (as compared to those for boys), narrowed by 25% and 32% respectively [9]. They also found that the educational gender gap itself entirely vanishes and attribute this to improved aspirations fostered by female role modelling. This is strong evidence that when women enter the political stage, society’s estimation of female value rises, and parents as well as girls themselves invest more in their future.

In Africa, research on the effect of female representation on women’s education is scarce. Dimitrova-Grajzl and Obasanjo (2019) analyze data on GII components for African countries and find no correlation between the presence of a gender quota and women’s education [4]. When they differentiate between types of quotas, they do find that legislative candidate quotas (whereby parties must nominate a certain percentage of women as parliamentary candidates) as opposed to reserved seats (where a certain percentage of seats are reserved for women-only elections), are associated with higher secondary enrollment for girls. They argue that different quota designs lend different degrees of legitimacy to women MPs, which impacts their effectiveness as MPs.

Tentative evidence from Uganda

My research focuses on Uganda, given the lack of quantitative studies of the country’s quota system and its effects – especially on women’s education. The Ugandan gender gap in primary school has decreased markedly thanks largely to the 1997 policy of universal primary education [10]. However, the gap persists from late primary school onwards, with secondary and tertiary gender ratios at 0.89 and 0.27 respectively [11].

To investigate the potential role of female political representation in lifting these ratios, I study Uganda’s 1989 implementation of a parliamentary gender quota. The policy, whereby each district has to elect a female representative, caused a large spike in representation from virtually zero to 34 female MPs (or 12% of seats). I look at cohorts born between 1959 and 1987, calculating the average difference in education of women who completed their education before the quota’s implementation and women who completed it after implementation – those who actually witnessed the rise in female representation while in school. I then compare this difference to the same difference amongst men. Comparing women’s education alone, before and after the quota risks capturing the impact of countless other factors affecting education over time. However, by subtracting the female difference from the male difference, the factors experienced by both men and women can be differenced out. This adds some credibility to the claim of isolating the effect of the quota on women’s education.

Results show that girls who were in school during the spike in female representation saw nearly one more year of education, a 4% higher probability of having finished primary school and 18% higher probability of having entered school at all. These are large, statistically significant, effects, considering that for women who completed their education before the quota, average years of education stood at 3.34 and primary-completion and school-entry rates were 20% and 57% respectively.

Nonetheless, these conclusions should be drawn cautiously, given the difficulty of definitively isolating the effect of the parliamentary quota. Although the double-differencing method eliminates some confounding factors, a definite causal interpretation of the above effects relies on there being no factors affecting education which varied over time (from before to after the quota) while also varying between women and men. In truth, one such factor, which is difficult to control for, is the growing women’s movement and the fact that regardless of the quota, since as early as the 1940s, it is likely that women’s education was increasing at a faster rate than men’s as a result of gradually improving societal attitudes.

Pitfalls of political gender quotas

Quotas are undoubtedly an effective means of increasing female representation, however, there is ongoing debate on whether they are detrimental to meritocracy and whether women elected within a quota system suffer from less legitimacy. In Uganda in particular, the quota’s design has been accused of being a patronage-spreading tool [12]. Since it is a reserved seat quota whereby every district in the country must proffer a female MP, the incumbent party’s frequent district-creation has led critics to claim it opens its doors to women MPs only to illicit loyalty and geographically advance their influence, illegitimating female MPs in the eyes of the electorate. Policy recommendations regarding gender quotas should thus take into account the diversity of quota systems and their relative advantages and disadvantages.

Conclusion

Though much more research is necessary to be able to draw generalizable conclusions, women’s political presence might be a promising tool to promote women’s education in the developing world. Indeed, female schooling can be most effectively promoted through direct supply or demand-side policies; however, synergies between gender equality in different domains should certainly be welcomed and further explored.

About the author:

Maike Kusserow has recently graduated from the University of Warwick with a BSc in Economics & Politics with study abroad at Sciences Po Paris. She is German-Colombian and grew up between East Africa, Germany, Austria and Colombia. She is passionate about issues of gender inequality and has a great interest in development economics. Her research, “Can political gender equality promote educational gender equality? Impacts of a parliamentary gender quota on women’s education in Uganda”, is available upon request.

References

When we talk about progress from a qualitative point of view, we often talk about life satisfaction. When we talk about gender equality, we often talk about helping women and girls achieve the same opportunities as men and boys. Another dimension, however, is how to reach life satisfaction and gender equality for all – those living in urban areas and those living in rural areas. This progress series will look at how Gender Equality and Web 2.0 can help bridge the divide between rural and urban girls, so that all girls benefit from current opportunities brought by new technologies – and be satisfied with their lives.

Starting point: a focus on rural girls

The (CSW), which ran from 27 February until 9 March 2012, focused on the empowerment of rural women and their role in poverty and hunger eradication, development and current challenges. Many organisations also took the opportunity of to focus on rural women, for example the FAO. Many ideas and facts from this section below came from a session Wikigender attended during the 56th CSW: “Rural girls and urban migration: the role of communications for development in bridging the divide“. There are many reasons why there is so much focus on rural women – in this progress series Wikigender will focus specifically on rural girls and their integration in cities. Why?

• Urbanisation and ICTs are two major agents of rapid change today: by 2050, it is estimated that 70% of the world population will be living in citiesUN-HABITAT, Press Release for the State of World Cities Report 2008/9, available at: http://www.unhabitat.org/content.asp?cid=6040&catid=7&typeid=5; however, some figures indicate that every week, of the 3 million people moving to urban areas, 1 million end up living in slums, and 55% of the slum population are women.UN-Habitat (2008), State of the World Cities Report 2008-2009
• A focus on rural girls: About 40% of the population in slums are girls under the age of 12. By 2030, approximately 1.5 billion girls will live in urban areas.
• Cities represent a world of opportunities for rural girls: it means access to better education, employment, information, but also escape from traditional practices such as female genital mutilation (FGM) or early marriage. According to a survey in slum areas of Addis Ababa, one in four young women migrants between the ages of 10 and 19 came to the city to escape child marriage.Plan International (2010), Because I am a Girl Report: Digital and Urban Frontiers: Girls in a Changing Landscape, p. 37 – available at: http://plan-international.org/girls/resources/digital-and-urban-frontiers-2010.phpCities can be places of inclusion and participation, but also places of exclusion and marginalisation, with the incidence of crime and violence. How can we ensure rural girls’ safe transition and inclusion into cities?

Moving to a city is not at all easy: better policies need to be put in place to help the integration of these rural girls into cities, so they can be empowered, but also so they can return to their families and empower other girls. This means not only providing access to technology, but also ensuring that such access to technology – and information – matches the expectations of rural girls, i.e. in finding a job.

Video: Growing up in rural communities

Watch this video below posted by Plan International in March 2012, where you can hear girls speaking out about growing up in rural communities. Plan supported girl delegates from Cambodia , Cameroon , Malawi , Pakistan and Sierra Leone to attend the 56th Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) at the UN to campaign for girls’ rights.

Communication for Development (C4D) Programmes

C4D was used since the 1970s to integrate children’s rights and social transformation perspectives with communication planning – it has a strong focus on building dialogue, enhancing community participation and ownership. In terms of girls’ rights in the cities, C4D appears as a powerful tool as it gives adolescent girls a voice and an active role in helping to develop safe urban environments – since they are best positioned to know what issues matter to them.UN-Habitat, Women in Cities International, Plan International (2012), Adolescent Girls Creating Safer Cities: Harnessing the Potential of Communication for Development (C4D), p. 4, available at: http://plancanada.ca/Document.Doc?id=265

There are many ways in which C4D can be used by girls: face to face, broadcast media, print media, the Internet and mobile phones.UN-Habitat, Women in Cities International, Plan International (2012), Adolescent Girls Creating Safer Cities: Harnessing the Potential of Communication for Development (C4D), p. 17, available at: http://plancanada.ca/Document.Doc?id=265

Today, numerous organisations use C4D in their participatory planning processes involving local communities and government bodies, such as the partnership between United Nations-Habitat, Plan International , Women in Cities and Huairou Commission. This partnership started to develop a programme framework in 2010 to test and validate Plan’s 8-point Call to Action on Girls’ Rights in the City – all girls have the right to:

1. Access safe education in the city
2. Be free from violence in the city
3. Secure and decent housing
4. Move safely in the city
5. Age-appropriate and decent work in a healthy urban environment
6. Safe spaces in the city
7. Participate in making cities safer, more inclusive and more accessible.Plan International (2010), Because I am a Girl Report: Digital and Urban Frontiers: Girls in a Changing Landscape, p. 91 – available at: http://plan-international.org/girls/resources/digital-and-urban-frontiers-2010.php

However, C4D approaches are still not fully understood by all development stakeholders; they are not adequately supported by community leaders and government structures; they need to be able to reach all levels, including the family, the community and the city; and they need to be better monitored and documented to add to the body of evidence and plan more effectively in the future.UN-Habitat, Women in Cities International, Plan International (2012), Adolescent Girls Creating Safer Cities: Harnessing the Potential of Communication for Development (C4D), p. 19, available at: http://plancanada.ca/Document.Doc?id=265

An example in practice: Ureport in UgandaSee the Ureport website: http://ureport.ug/

This is a programme using both new technology and traditional media – it is a free SMS-based system allowing young Ugandans to speak out on issues that matter to them the most, such as: access to healthcare, early marriage, FGm, dropping out of school, etc. Local communities then work together with other community leaders for positive change – and the key messages are taken to the Government so appropriate action can be taken.

Ureport includes:

• Weekly SMS messages and polls to and from a growing community of Ureporters
• Regular radio programs that will broadcast stories gathered by Ureport
• Newspaper articles that will publish stories from the Ureport community.

There are over 90, 000 members to date.

Of course, the programme faces a number of challenges, such as the language barrier, literacy issues, and lack of phone ownership. But it is well received by the different communities and is very successful in bringing people to think together about creative solutions and how to put them into action.

Video: Ureport on early marriage and violence against children

Watch the U-report television show that was posted in January 2012 on the issues of early marriage and violence against children:

Recommendations to policymakers and donors

So what can be done?

Policy recommendations should be based on the following international conventions and commitments:

• UNESCO and UN-Habitat Right to the City
• Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)
• CEDAW (CEDAW)
• Plan’s 8-Point Call to Action on Girls’ Rights in the City (see section above)UN-Habitat, Women in Cities International, Plan International (2012), Adolescent Girls Creating Safer Cities: Harnessing the Potential of Communication for Development (C4D), p. 22, available at: http://plancanada.ca/Document.Doc?id=265

A number of interesting recommendations were given by the panellists fromn the session on “Harnessing C4D Innovations: Transforming the lives of marginalised girls through ICTs” (at the 56th CSW):

• New ICTs should be integrated in all policies, in such a way that it respects both the participation and the protection of rural girls
• There is a need to increase the mobile phone coverage and the literacy rates, to accelerate girls’ empowerment (a note to the private sector: there are huge business opportunities there to expand mobile phone networks)
• Engage with women, girls, men and boys and work with the whole community to transform social norms and discriminatory attitudes that hamper rural girls’ opportunities
• Give rural girls the chance to innovate with new ICT tools: support small projects over the long-term via a participatory approach.

One key recommendation: Count girls and measure progress

There is a lack of quality and comparable data on adolescent girls in developing countries: some of this information is collected via censuses and national surveys such as demographic health surveys, but this is not enough.Girls Grow: A Vital Force in Rural Economies, A Girls Count Report on Adolescent girls, The Chicago Council on Global Affairs, p. 15, available at: http://www.thechicagocouncil.org/UserFiles/File/GlobalAgDevelopment/Report/GirlsGrowReportFinal_v9.pdf What is needed is more data on adolescents and young people, with particular focus on disaggregated data on rural adolescent girls.

Efforts should be focused on:

• Recording all births and collecting/disaggregating gender and age-data

Birth registration is central to be able to defend rural girls’ rights efficiently – this includes defending against early marriage, but also accessing health care, social services, and legal rights. This may include capacity building in rural areas, and household and population data should be disaggregated by age, gender, martial, educational and socioeconomic status and geographic location. The same applies to national censuses, demographic health surveys, and labour surveys.

• Establishing benchmarks and reporting progress regularly

International organisations and national governments need to establish benchmarks for each action that are specific to rural girls’ circumstances, and progress should be reported regularly. Ideally, benchmarks and progress should be discussed at a regional level, and country strategies should be carefully monitored and supported.Girls Grow: A Vital Force in Rural Economies, A Girls Count Report on Adolescent girls, The Chicago Council on Global Affairs, p. 99, available at: http://www.thechicagocouncil.org/UserFiles/File/GlobalAgDevelopment/Report/GirlsGrowReportFinal_v9.pdf

See Also

• Gender Equality and ICTs
• Iphones and Gender Equality
• Access to internet and computers
• Female Migration
• Women and Migration

Other progress-related articles

• See [Wikigender Progress Series|Wikigender Progress Series]

References

External Links

• Cambodian women’s pink tech revolution – see also: “Pink telephones – using technology to empower women in Cambodia”
• At CSW56, discriminatory social institutions matter!, 8 March 2012, ProgBlog

About

Custody comes into play during and after the divorce of a married couple with children. The rules of custody in the Middle East have been significantly influenced by religious influences, albeit by varying degrees of strength depending on the country. Custody, and by extension guardianship laws, can be found in a country’s family code or family laws.

Types of Custody

There are two main components of custody: hadana and waliya. These two components are genderized. Hadana, which can be translated as ‘care’ is most often associated with the mother’s duty. Wilaya, translated at ‘supervision’ is the duty of the father. The two are not placed on equal grounds.

• Hadana

Hadana is care allocated to the mother. It is associated with the care of raising a child such as feeding, clothing and bathing, that the child is too young to perform by themself. Boys often leave hadana care early, anywhere from the age of two to seven is most common. Girls can stay under the custody of the mother until puberty or until marriage, depending on the local culture. A mother can lose her rights to hadana if she remarries. Hadana is always given to a female relative. If the mother is unable to do it, it may pass to the maternal grandmother, the paternal grandfather, a sister, aunt or any other viable relative.

• Wilaya

Wilaya is the supervision or guardianship of the child, which is associated with the father.If the father is unable to take his responsibilities because of death or insanity, then wilaya almost always passes to another male relative on the patrilineal side. Wilaya often encompasses the child’s access to citizen rights such as a passport or enrollment in school.

Country Specifics

• Algeria

Under the family code of 1984, a woman has custody of a son until he reaches the age of 16 and a daughter until she turns 18 or marries, whichever happens first. She is allowed to become guardian of her children if the father dies. Despite the code, Algeria’s Constitution, passed in 1989, legally allows inequality between the genders.

• Egypt

The Muslim peronal status law of 1920 granted women custody of sons until the age of seven and daughters until they turned nine. If circumstances revealed that it was in a child’s best interest, a judge could order an extension, allowing sons to remain with the mother until nine and daughters until eleven.

• Iran

Under the Pahlavi dynasty, guardianship was always granted to the father, but custody was granted to the parent that was best suited to care for the child. Women had a greater chance of obtaining custody during this time. Things changed after the Islamic Revolution. The family code took it’s roots in shari’a law. As a result men were given custody of boys when they turned two and girls when they turned seven. As of 2003 the law relaxed a bit, allowing women to keep custody of sons until the age of seven.

• Jordan

Custody laws are found in the Jordanian Civil Code. Article 155 of the code describes the characteristics a mother must have in order to obtain custody, which include: trustworthiness, ability to perform her duties of taking care of her children and she mustn’t remarry. Article 161 of the code states that, a woman has the right to custody of sons until the age of nine and girls until the age of eleven. Her remarriage, results in forfeiture of any custody rights according to article 156. In addition, the waliy (guardian) must approve of any travel for her children outside of the country.

• Kuwait

The Kuwaiti personal status law contains the laws dealing with custody. It is siginficant in that its interpretation of Islamic law deviates from traditional norms. Custody is granted to the parent that the judge deems most suitable for the children. If a woman is granted custody she keeps sons until the age of 15 and daughters until they marry. Her divorced husband is responsible for maintenance payments of any children in her custody. All rights to custody end if a woman remarries.

• Lebanon

Muslim women are allowed custody until their son reaches the age of seven and girls reach the age of nine unless they remarry, at which time they lose custody immediately. Men never lose custody if they remarry, and the children belong to his patrilineal line.

• Palestinian Arab Women in Israel

Women are allowed custody for sons until the age of seven and daughters until the age of nine. Under shari’a interpretation, women aren’t naturally accepted to the responsibilities of custody. Sometimes women may experience pressure from the husband’s side of the family. For example: if she wants a divorce, it could be bartered for, and in return she would give up any custody rights to her children.

• Saudi Arabia

Women have custody of sons until the age of five and daughters until the age of seven.

• Tunisia

1981 mothers given rights to both custody and guardianship in the event of the father’s death. In 1993 mothers were given guardianship if they could prove the father unworthy. This reform challenges traditional patrilineal understandings.

References

• Mir-Hosseini, Ziba. “Paternity, Patriarchy and Matrifocality in the Shari’a and in Social Practice: The Cases of Morocco and Iran.” Cambridge Anthropology, 1992/1993
• “Hadana.” In The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Ed. John L. Esposito. Oxford Islamic Studies Online. 27-Jun-2010. <http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e756>.
• Joseph, Suad. “Gender and Citizenship in the Middle East.” Syracuse University Press: New York, 2000.
• Oslanoo, Arzoo. The Politics of Women’s Rights in Iran. Princeton University Press: Oxford, 2009

See Also

• Divorce
• Women in the Women in the Middle East and North Women and African Economic Development (MENA) (MENA)
• Family Code

External Links

• For up to date information on parental authority, see the Social Institutions and Gender Index Country Profiles.

Table of Contents

• 1 Social media
• 2 Children/Young People & Media in the World Today
• 3 Usage Patterns
• 4 Demographics
• 5 Search sites
• 6 Types of social media
  • 6.1 Social Networks
    • 6.1.1 Facebook in Thailand
  • 6.2 Microblogging
    • 6.2.1 Twittery Thais
  • 6.3 Instagram
  • 6.4 Media Sharing
  • 6.5 Google+
  • 6.6 We chat
  • 6.7 Line up
• 7 The important risk of social media always happen in Thailand
• 8 References
• 9 External links
• 10 Group 1

Social media

Social media refers to the means of interaction among people in which they create, share and exchange information and ideas in virtual communities and networks. Social media depends on mobile and web-based technologies to create highly interactive platforms through which individuals and communities share, co-create, discuss and modify user-generated content. It introduces substantial and pervasive changes to communication between organizations, communities and individuals.

Children/Young People & Media in the World Today

Two billion young people under 18 make up approximately one-third of the world’s population.They make up half of the population in the least developed nations and less than a quarter in the most industrialised nations.
Globalisation of media are among the key factors and defined the current generation of young people.Youth can access more multi-media choices than ago such conventional, satellite and cable TV channels; radio stations; newspapers and magazines; the internet and computer and video games.
Today there is greater availability of foreign programming and media, and less official censorship
and control in many parts of the world. Information, email and images flow around the world faster and
more freely than ever.It helps people know each other more than ever.

Usage Patterns

• Total Online Population in 2012: 20,100Thailand.Retrieved 13 August 2013from http://www.newmediatrendwatch.com/markets-by-country/11-long-haul/66-thailand
• Percentage of Population Online in 2012: 30.0%Thailand.Retrieved 13 August 2013from http://www.newmediatrendwatch.com/markets-by-country/11-long-haul/66-thailand

Retrieved 13 August 2013 from http://www.newmediatrendwatch.com/markets-by-country/11-long-haul/66-thailand

Demographics

There were 20,100,000 internet users in Thailand (representing 30% of the population) at mid-year 2012 (30 June 2012), according to Internet World Stats.

Thailand’s online population, defined as people aged from 6 onwards that accessed the internet from a home or work computer in the past 30 days, reached nearly 9.8 million in February 2012, according to comScore. Average users spent 27.4 hours online during the month, consuming an average of 2,845 pages of content, in February 2012.

Profile of online visitors in Thailand, February 2012 (Total Thailand – Visitors age 15+ Home/Work Locations):

GENDER

– Males: 50.7%

– Females: 49.3%

AGE

– 15-24: 45.2%

– 25-34: 29.5%

– 35-44: 14.3%

– 45-54: 6.9%

– 55+: 4.2%

Search sites

Google Sites (which include Google Search and other Google-owned entities such as YouTube.com) is most popular websit in Thailand with 9.3 million visitors in February 2012, representing 95.7% of the total online population, according to comScore. Microsoft Sites followed with 9.0 million visitors (92.6% reach), followed by Facebook.com with 8.6 million visitors (88.4% reach).com
comScore Data Mine, April 2012 from http://www.comscoredatamine.com/
Figure 2 : Top Properties in Thailand by Unique Visitors

Types of social media

Social Networks

Social network is a social structure made up of a set of social actors (such as individuals or organizations) and a set of the dyadic ties between these actors.Social networks that allow you to connect with other people of similar interests and background. Usually they consist of a profile, various ways to interact with other users, ability to set up groups, etc. The most popular is Facebook.

Facebook in Thailand

It is the number one most popular user-generated content website and the most used social network as of 13 August 2013 in Thailand. Currently, there are 18 million Facebook users in Thailand. The largest age group is currently 18-24, followed by the users in the age of 25-34. There are 49% male users and 51% female users in Thailand, compared to 52% and 48% in Germany and 52% and 48% in Japan.

In 2010, Facebook gained popularity as it enabled its users to play games online with their friends. This feature is not available on Hi5, which is their main competitor. Hence, over time, Facebook overtook Hi5 in terms of number of users. Some of the Facebook games which are appealing to Thai users include Farmville, Café World and Restaurant City. As time goes by and trends have been changing, the users use Facebook to share many aspects of their lives. The most likely item to be shared is pictures of food. It has become such a trend that before eating, people take some pictures of the appealing dishes and upload them on their ‘wall’. This actually helps restaurants, especially Thai restaurants, to increase their popularity among other people who do not know about the place. Moreover, for those who have foreign friends, the uploads of pictures of Thai food promotes national cuisine and also make foreigners want to try Thai food. Also, the sharing of pictures of places and cultures in Thailand is helping the country to get more international attention and encourages tourists to visit Thailand.The big hit of social Media in Thailand. The majority of Facebook users in Thailand are in the capital, Bangkok.

Microblogging is a broadcast medium in the form of blogging. A microblog differs from a traditional blog in that its content is typically smaller in both actual and aggregate file size. Microblogs “allow users to exchange small elements of content such as short sentences, individual images, or video links”. Services that focus on short updates that are pushed out to anyone subscribed to receive the updates. The most popular is Twitter.

Twittery Thais

Twitter is one of the important social networks that has had a huge impact on Thai culture. Within its 140 character tweets, news spreads fast to people. These days, busy people who do not have time to watch TV prefer to use Twitter to keep themselves up to date. Twitter has changed the behaviour of many Thai people from using TV to using computers or smart phones regularly. Thai people also share their experiences and pictures on Twitter with tags so other people can easily search brief information about Thailand.

There are now two million Thai people on Twitter who tweet on average 5.5 times each day. Like with Facebook, the country’s Twitterers are night owls, tending to post more between 10pm and midnight. 66.7 percent of Twitter posts in Thailand are made on mobiles.

Snapping up Instagram

With stellar growth in Thailand in the past year, Instagram is now up to 600,000 users in the country, up from 150,000 this time last year. In the first four months of 2013, users collectively posted 21.38 million photos. One of the most liked users is @aum_patchrapa, the beauty queen turned actress Pachrapa ‘Aum’ Chaichua.

Media Sharing

Services that allow you to upload and share various media such as pictures and video. Most services have additional social features such as profiles, commenting, etc. The most popular are YouTube and Flickr.

YouTube boom

YouTube is still seeing great growth in Thailand, and is now up to 630,000 channels within the nation, adding up to 5.3 million videos uploaded by Thai users. The top video category is music.

Google+

Google+, a social network operated by Google, Inc., launched on June 28th, 2011 with integration across a number of Google products, including Buzz and Profiles.

Google+ is a focus on targeted sharing within subsets of your social group, which are what Google calls Circles. Circles are simply small groups of people that you can share with, each with names like friends, family, classmates and co-workers.

Also within Google+, Google has created a section specifically for viewing, managing and editing multimedia. The photo tab takes a user to all of the photos he or she has shared, as well as the ones he or she is tagged in. It’s not just photo tagging, though: Google+ includes an image editor (complete with Instagram – like photo effects), privacy options and sharing features.

Another feature that’s widely discussed is “Hangouts,” Google’s new group chat feature. Instead of directly asking a friend to join a group chat, users instead click “start a hangout” and they’re instantly in a video chatroom alone. At the same time, a message goes out to their social circles, letting them know that their friend is “hanging out.” Friends can then join the hangout as long as they have been placed in a circle that was invited by the person who created the Hangout.

We chat

Wechat is a mobile text and voice messaging communication service developed by Tencent in China , first released in January 2011. The app is available on Android, iPhone, BlackBerry, Windows Phone, and Symbian platforms. Languages supported include traditional/simplified Chinese, English, Indonesian, Spanish, Portuguese, Turkish, Malay, Japanese, Korean, Polish, Italian, Thai, Vietnamese, Hindi and Russian. WeChat is supported on Wi-Fi, 2G, 3G, and 4G data networks. WeChat provides multimedia communication with text messaging, hold-to-talk voice messaging, broadcast (one-to-many) messaging, photo/video sharing, location sharing, and contact information exchange.

Line up

There are no Thailand-specific numbers from WeChat for Thailand, so let’s focus on the rival app Line up, which has a pretty spectacular 15 million Thai users. It’s also an important new platform for social marketing and brands outreach, with the top Thai brand on Line up having 4.6 million followers already.

The important risk of social media always happen in Thailand

Internet threats are important , it is. Threat of the use of social or Social Network as a target for criminals to use as tools to create rumors of a propaganda trick. And can also used to steal personal information of users of Social Network is also likely to increase. Noted that Currently, there are approximately 900 million Facebook users in Thailand is ranked 16th , with about 17 million users and is likely to increase steadily.

The Social Network is the main goal of the criminals because users are sharing more and more personal information. The profile picture personal information such as address, date of birth status , personal contacts , etc.

This information can be used to commit crimes such as multiple users may post messages about where they are , or are about to go out. Meanwhile in history is the information that is displayed. The criminals who have access to this information to steal something that they need because they know that person was not as home.

References

Social media.Retrieved 13August 2013 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_media

WeChat.Retrieved 13 August 2013 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WeChat

Microblogging.Retrived 2 September 2013 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microblogging#cite_note-1

Score Data Mine, April 2012 from http://www.comscoredatamine.com/

Internet World Stats, December 2012 from http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats3.htm

Children, Youth and Media Around the World: An Overview of Trends & Issues.Retrieved 13 August 2013 from http://www.unicef.org/videoaudio/intermedia_revised.pdf

External links

• Digital Media in Thailand (SMU wiki)

Group 1

From the left on top

Ms.Krichakorn Rungseeborirak 53148010178

Ms.Yuwadee Juntrapakorn 5314801020

Mr.Keito Kusaka 56148010275

From the left, second row

Mr.Saswat Kruemanee 53148010314

Ms.Phaniphak Suanmalee 53148010120

Ms.Sutisa Phonsab 53148010214

Table of Contents

• 1 Public Attitudes towards Gender Equality
• 2 Youth Contribution for Establishing Gender Norms in Thai society
  • 2.1 Children and Youth Participation in the Media
  • 2.2 Youth Network for Thai Education (YNTE)
• 3 The Master Plan for Promoted in Gender Equality
• 4 References
• 5 Group 4

Public Attitudes towards Gender Equality

The “Public Attitudes towards Gender Equality” survey was carried out in correspondence with the agreed framework in “Thailand National Standard and Indicators on Gender Equality” developed by Office of Women’s Affairs and Family Development, Ministry of Social Development and Human Security in Thailand . This survey was geared towards understanding

• Standard 1: Equality of Human Dignity
• Standard 2: Gender Equality from the Social Context in the aforementioned framework. http://www.gender.go.th/publication/book/เจตคติประชาชน_attitude_2555.pdf

Implementation and Recommendations from the survey

1. Disseminate the survey results and its relevance to gain support from all parties in society.
2. Provide data and relevant facts regarding the appropriate roles of public media and gender. Also, aim to attract people in the media sector to be proactive and gender sensitive by developing partnership with the media.
3. Work closely with people in the media sector who have direct influence and impact on the masses, especially disadvantaged groups in order to ensure that all have the right to understand gender equality.
4. Organize meetings with concerned parties about violence against women in order to enable them to truly understand and appreciate gender equality.
5. Develop creative toolkits with related themes to promote gender equality and distribute them to schools. Work closely with all media support people to alter negative public attitudes towards gender equality.

http://www.gender.go.th/publication/book/เจตคติประชาชน_attitude_2555.pdf

Youth Contribution for Establishing Gender Norms in Thai society

Allowing young people to develop greater understanding and awareness of their rights and to think more critically would also enable them to have a more meaningful participation and contribution to ideas on children’s lives. It is slowly becoming more common for children and youth to give their opinions on issues related to their own situation. Nevertheless, some local and international NGOs working on children’s rights and on adolescent health have introduced good practices as well as useful tools to ensure young people’s meaningful participation. The new Children and Youth Development Act established by the Children and Youth Councils provides greater opportunities to develop the skills and capacity of young people and engage them in decisions that affect their lives and society. Participation of children from vulnerable and excluded groups as well as equal representation should be stressed in order to have a powerful and practical impact. Additionally, equally important is the awareness among the wider public of the participation of children from vulnerable groups and the promotion of gender equality.http://www.unicef.org/thailand/1045_UNICEF_Final_row_res_230911.pdf

Children and Youth Participation in the Media

Children’s access to information, often through different forms of media, is also an important enabling factor for active citizenship and participation. The Foundation for Child Development and other NGOs have been working to promote children’s participation in the media through different programmes. With this Network 154 Children and youth can communicate on sensitive issues, such as HIV prevention, drug abuse and sexuality, in their own language and style, which makes the information more accessible to their peers. The Thai Health Fund Foundation has supported programs, such as the Media and the Well-being of Children and Youth, which enable formation of various media and youth networks. These networks engage children in program production and monitoring to ensure better quality and more appropriate content for children and youth. http://www.unicef.org/thailand/1045_UNICEF_Final_row_res_230911.pdf

Global Youth Participation Project in Thailand

  The YPP Thailand team organised a Forum Meeting with their five local organisations on 29th of June. The YPP National Coordinator, Khun Katesanee Chantrakul, worked with the two Youth Motivators, Ms. Narissara Yebeo and Ms. Sayumporn Kirinimit, to help them prepare for their role. They gave an excellent presentation on the roles and responsibilities of the Youth Motivators in the Thailand YPP. The representatives of the five local partner organisations actively participated in the meeting, raising many key issues related to their partnership in the YPP through the support of the Peer Support Programs in their schools and shelters. Some of the key issues that were discussed related to: the selection criteria of the Peer Supporters, child protection issues related to the Peer Support Programme, roles and responsibilities of the local partners in implementing the Peer Support Programmes and the sustainability of the programme beyond the first year.http://www.ecpat.net/ei/Programmes_activity.asp?groupID=2

Youth Network for Thai Education (YNTE)

Youth Network for Thai Education (YNTE) was the Thai Students Network that made others aware of the Problems of The Thai Education System and those who were affected by education policies of the Thai Ministry of Education.

Thai Students Network has two main objectives:

1. To develop the Thai Education System by encouraging young students’ participation
2. To contribute and support young people looking to solve education problems by research and studying social issues

Reason’s for its Establishment

1. Observational study in Thai Education for the benefit of youth and society.
2. Protecting youth and society from unfair education system.
3. Disseminating various knowledge fields to youth.
4. To achieve educational equality.
5. It calls on anyone involved to attend to youth education.
6. Creating social awareness for youth in order to makes others aware of the impact of policies.
7. Building a strong network of Thai Students to take care of themselves and their nation.
8. To be more involved in education reform.
9. To create an event space in order to meet about education issues.
10. To study problems of social democracy and to respond correctly.https://www.facebook.com/ynte.th?ref=ts

The Master Plan for Promoted in Gender Equality

The Master Plan for Promoted Gender Equality falls under the Feminine Development Plan, which is a part of the plan of developing economic and social goals No. 11. pg. 2012–2516. In 2000, the members of UN jointly announced the ‘Millennium Development Goals: MDGs’ which defined eight main goals and 48 indicators. One particularly important goals was goal number three, which is to support the equality of gender and to promote the female role; The goal goes on to state four important indicators of Gender equality –

1. The proportion of women to men in primary school, secondary school, and in higher education.
2. The rate of female literacy compared to males from age 15-24.
3. The proportion of females who work and earn a salary outside the agricultural sector.
4. The proportion of females in parliament.

• Thailand has already reached the goal of gender equality in the education sector, so it is important to define the other MDGs goal which are more challenging according to the development plan:

1. Lessen the gender gap in a certain parts of education such as, support self-studying
2. Create more chances for females in decision-making politics by supporting women’s role in politics and allowing more women to attain higher positions such as that of Chief Executive Officer.
3. Eliminate violence against women. Protect women who are victims of beating, sexual exploitation, human trafficking and domestic violence.
4. Promote females to study women’s rights
5. Improving data collection and analysis in order to separate female data from male data.

1. According to the vision to ‘achieve equality and social rights in order for Thai women to live with honor and have a steady, safe and high-quality of life the Thai Office of the National Economics and Social Development Board define five strategies:
2. Promote attitude and acceptance about the equality of gender.
3. Develop potentiality and increase economic and social chances of Thai women.
4. Develop overall well-being and promote stability in livelihood.
5. Develop female potentiality in order to increase women’s chance of participation in politics, governance, and decisions at different societal levels.
6. Promote and develop the efficacy of female organizations.

References

Group 4

Table of Contents

• 1 Thai youth and eating disorders
• 2 The solutions
• 3 See also
• 4 References
• 5 Group1

Thai youth and eating disorders

Nowadays, children in Thailand risk developing health problems because of their eating habits. The report of the National Statistical office in 2009 states that both the share of children who eat 3 meals a day and more than 3 meals a day increased since 2005. This is especially the case for the share of children who eat more than 3 meals a day, as it increased two-fold between 2005 and 2009. This means that younger children are exposed to the possibility of developing obesity, which can lead to many health problems. http://service.nso.go.th/nso/nsopublish/citizen/news/news_childn.jsp Figure 1 : the eating behavior of Thai children who have age 6-14 years. Children in Thailand tend to mostly eat junk food such as snacks, soft drinks and other foods that contain high sugar or fat. This kind of food might cause many chronic diseases, such as diabetes melitus, hypertension or heart disease in adults. By looking at the second graph below, we find that more than sixty percent of Thai youth consumes this type of food. In the case of others, both adolescent boys and girls have developed health issues from drinking, smoking and drug use, substances which are commonly found in night clubs or bars. But research on this topic has not been rigorous, particularly because it is hard to collect data from youth who come to entertainment venues or belief in enforcing on law there is efficient. Nevertheless, it is known that these problems are occurring at higher rates than in the past. http://service.nso.go.th/nso/nsopublish/citizen/news/news_childn.jsp Figure 2 : The consumption affects health of Thai children aged 6-14 years.

The solutions

The table below shows that the infection HIV/AIDS of Thai youth is a decreasing trend in all groups of Thai children between 2011 and 2013. This is as a result of the provision of information about using condoms correctly to protect from infectious veneral diseases and control the birth rate. In order to solve such problems, the Thai government has created a foundation that undertakes research in the field of health, supports many activities that promote a healthy lifestyle (e.g. aerobic dance in public parks) and campaigns to reduce risks and problems relating to the health of both Thai children and Thai older people (e.g.’No Drinking in Buddhist Lent’, Deceased abdomen to lost illness, or no drinking and driving campaigns). http://office.bangkok.go.th/aids/statistics/bss_54.pdf.Retrived 23 august 2013Table 1: Trends in all age groups of Thai people between 2011 and 2013

See also

• Adolescent girls enrolment

References

Group1

From the left on top Ms.Krichakorn Rungseeborirak 53148010178 Ms.Yuwadee Juntrapakorn 5314801020 Mr.Keito Kusaka 56148010275 From the left, second row Mr.Saswat Kruemanee 53148010314 Ms.Phaniphak Suanmalee 53148010120 Ms.Sutisa Phonsab 53148010214 Photo ]]> https://www.wikigender.org/wiki/thai-youth-and-health-issues/feed/ 0 https://www.wikigender.org/wiki/youth-networks-in-thailand-and-asia-pacific/ https://www.wikigender.org/wiki/youth-networks-in-thailand-and-asia-pacific/#respond Thu, 01 Jan 1970 00:00:00 +0000 http://www.wikigender.org/youth-networks-in-thailand-and-asia-pacific/

Introduction

Young people are the world’s largest resource in development. People who are 24 years old or younger make up almost half of the world’s 7 billion population (with 1.2 billion between the ages of 10 and 19), their percentage of the population in some major developing countries is already at its peak, according to the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs in its World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision. From that result, we cannot deny that youth are the new global power who can contribute to reshape the world. At present, youth around the world have already known about their power to make the impact on society where they lived. They are joining the global youth networks or their region networks which are established by various world organizations such as the United Nations (UN) have been established The UNEP TUNZA South East Asia Youth Environment Network (SEAYEN) in order to empowering youth in the region.South East Asian Youth Environment Network

Youth Networks is developed by No Borders. No Borders is a nonprofit organisation that endeavours to make connections between youth organisations, youth workers and youngsters easier and more efficient. This organisation inspires people and also works to increase youth participation and channel youth voices into policy-making. It helps connect youth groups to each other and to share information, resources and opportunities that empower their work for social change. Membership is open to any organisation that does not promote hatred or violence towards others, is youth-led, youth-serving and youth-friendly.

Examples of youth networks in Thailand

The Thai Youth Anti-Corruption Network

The Thai Youth Anti-Corruption is a group of more than 4,000 Thai University students from more than 90 universities in Thailand, sponsored by the United Nations Development Programme. This program was built to train students to become good persons and to fight corruption. The anti-corruption campaign was created and implemented by students themselves. This campaign is unique because it was not created by an organisation but was the direct idea of Thai students. The strategy of this program is from an inter-university student network on Facebook, a good example of the use of social media to develop a network: This page (http://www.facebook.com/tyanticorruption) is a space for students to share ideas, photos and information about the anti-corruption campaign to promote integrity and prevent corruption. Students were trained to use social media and taught interpersonal skills needed to share key messages with their peers. The strategy to teach students about corruption is by promoting information about corruption or by camps. The UNDP held anti-corruption camps across the country to educate student leaders about the dangers of corruption in Thai society and to promote responsible citizenship and civic knowledge (The Thai Youth Anti-Corruption Network (Thailand)) On 20 June 2013 the Thai youth anti-corruption network won a “Creative For Good” best practice by the World Economic Forum (WEF). The “Creative For Good” platform was created by the World Economic Forum, in collaboration with the Ad Council and Ketchum, as an online resource for case studies of effective public education campaigns. It brings together over 60 campaigns from around the world on social issues such as education, health and the environment. The success of this campaign is a result of anti-corruption programmes. The UNDP aims to continue anti-corruption programs at the university level, creating strong campus activist organisations with permanent ties to universities, academics, journalists and civil society organisations (UNDP-sponsored Thai Youth Anti-Corruption Network wins best practice by World Economic Forum).

The Asia Pacific Youth Network (APYN)

Additionally, the Asia Pacific Youth Network (APYN) is an example of a youth network in Thailand and the Pacific region. APYN connects people in the region who want to work together to campaign for human rights change. It involves young people to develop and coordinate campaigning activities and focuses on providing opportunities for young people to develop leadership skills, share their creativity and connect with friends in the region. Thailand is one country that participated with the Asia Pacific Youth Network. In 2012 there were numerous activities, inlucding 42 simultaneous events in 10 countries in May that were supported by Amnesty International ’s campaign which includes the amplification of young voices in the region on economic, social and cultural rights. In Thailand, youth activities participated in a day programme in a house party. (Asia Pacific Youth Network, 2013)

The Indigenous Women’s Network of Thailand (IWNT)

The Indigenous Women’s Network of Thailand (IWNT) was founded in 1996 to provide a gender perspective to development activities affecting indigenous communities in Northern Thailand. Between its establishment and 2010, IWNT operated within the Inter Mountain Peoples Education and Culture Thailand Association (IMPECT) – one of the largest indigenous organisations in Thailand – to oversee and advise on gender related aspects of IMPECT’s activities.WOMEN’S NETWORK OF THAILAND (IWNT) Over the years, IWNT has been involved in projects targeting indigenous communities in Thailand and conducted research on themes related to women’s rights and well-being in these communities. Through this work, we gained a clear understanding of the challenges and obstacles facing indigenous women and a growing desire to address some of the needs voiced by the women and communities. However, it was also evident that there was little room for the needs, priorities and participation of indigenous women within the mainstream indigenous movement in Thailand. As a result, in early 2011 the women of IWNT decided that it was time to establish IWNT as an independent organisation working towards improving the lives of indigenous women in Northern Thailand (History of INDIGENOUS WOMEN’S NETWORK OF THAILAND (IWNT)). These are some of IWNT’s activities :

• informing indigenous women about their rights as women and as indigenous peoples
• promoting national and international instruments for women’s protection
• promoting women’s participation in local government and other decision making structures
• providing training to prepare indigenous women leaders for public roles

IWNT currently consists of a Committee of 10 indigenous women (one from each of the 10 indigenous groups in Northern Thailand) who are dedicated to empowering, strengthening and supporting indigenous women. The Committee provides direction and governs the activities of the organisation. Since its establishment, IWNT has been making strong and sustained contributions to the issue of indigenous women in Thailand through its own and other partner networks. Some of our most significant achievements include:

• Participation in local politics
• Training and awareness raising on the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)
• Participation in national and international discussions (Achievement of INDIGENOUS WOMEN’S NETWORK OF THAILAND).

The Impact of Youth Networks

As we see, there are several youth networks throughout the world, and each network is doing activities in their own field. For example, The UNEP TUNZA South East Asia Youth Environment Network (SEAYEN) focuses on the environmental aspect, The Thai Youth Anti-Corruption Network focuses on the political aspect. The impact of each network on society varies depending on its strategies.

Impact of the Thai Youth Anti-Corruption Network

In Thailand, The Thai Youth Anti-Corruption Network began with just 36 student leaders from fifteen universities in June of 2012. After six intensive anti-corruption “camps,” the campaign built a solid network of more than 3,500 students from more than 90 Thai universities. Each camp has recruited new leaders — anti-corruption champions at Thai universities. UNDP built solid partnerships with key universities in Thailand, like KhonKaen University’s College of Local Administration, and attracted attention from the private sector. The campaign also featured high-level speakers and advocates, including former Prime Minister AbhisitVejjajiva. The anti-corruption campaign has continued to attract attention from other institutions and networks, most notably Thailand’s private sector Anti-Corruption Network (ACN). In August, the team signed a partnership to promote dialogue and strategy on fighting corruption, to develop future advocacy campaigns and to build the capacity of organisations within our expanding networks. The Anti-Corruption Network (ACN) is led by a group of Thai businessmen and more than 30 industry associations, including the Thai Chamber of Commerce, the Thai Bankers’ Association, the Federation of Thai Industries, and the Stock Exchange of Thailand (SET). However, the campaign’s biggest impact was on December 9th, International Anti-Corruption Day, where 2,000 university students came to Bangkok — pouring out of mass transit stations dressed in trademark “Refuse to be Corrupt” blue t-shirts. They came from all over Thailand. More than 500 students came from the Southern provinces of Thailand. 23 universities participated in the anti-corruption themed art exhibition at the Bangkok Art and Culture Center, in partnership with the National Anti-Corruption Commission (NACC) (World Economic Forum).

Impact of the Indigenous Women’s Network of Thailand

The Indigenous Women’s Network of Thailand (IWNT): Since its establishment, IWNT has been making strong and sustained contributions to the issue of indigenous women in Thailand through its own and other partner networks. Some of our most significant achievements include:

• Participation in local politics
• Providing capacity building for 240 indigenous women to participate in local politics which led to 32 indigenous women being elected into Local Administrative Organizations and Municipalities(2009)
• Training and awareness rising on the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)
• Promotion of CEDAW, training of trainers to promote CEDAW at community level, and training on research and preparation of case studies to support CEDAW Shadow Report for 100 indigenous women leaders (2007-2011, in cooperation with UN Women Thailand and the Asian Indigenous Women’s Network).
• Participation in national and international discussions

Through these activities, advocacy and partnerships since 2002, more than 20 indigenous women leaders have received training, participated in and contributed to national and international meetings, discussions and consultations on climate change, Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) issues, and the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), among others (The Indigenous Women’s Network of Thailand (IWNT)).

Summary

Youth networks are very useful to gather young people with the same interests together. There may be, however, problems in becoming a successful network. For example, even if they have the same interests, young people have different ideas or methods to realise their goals, which frequently can be seen today (e.g. youngster red shirts and yellow shirts in Thailand); some of the methods may lead to violent situations such as mobs. Networks need some basic knowledge, like computer skills and analytical skills to understand and contribute to the society effectively (e.g. Thai Youth Anti-corruption Network). Still, with good sponsorship and guidance, networks can become successful like the Thai Youth Anti-corruption Network, which means that young people can contribute to society as well as other volunteers, and they can develop their skills for the future benefit of their communities.

References

1. South East Asian Youth Environment Network
2. Youth networks
3. The Thai Youth Anti-Corruption Network (Thailand)
4. UNDP-sponsored Thai Youth Anti-Corruption Network wins best practice by World Economic Forum
5.  WOMEN’S NETWORK OF THAILAND (IWNT)
6. History of INDIGENOUS WOMEN’S NETWORK OF THAILAND (IWNT)
7.  Achievement of INDIGENOUS WOMEN’S NETWORK OF THAILAND
8. World Economic Forum
9.  The Indigenous Women’s Network of Thailand (IWNT)

Group 2

From left to right: Mr. Tanakorn Chaianekwut, Mr. Jirayut Songkrampoo, Miss Chulalak Kongsook, Miss Preeyaporn Eakthanyawong, Mr. Burakarn Tippayasakulcahi, Mr. Supanut Sawetarpa  

Established in 2000, the United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative is a multi-stakeholder partnership committed to improving the quality and availability of girls’ education and contributing to the empowerment of girls and women through transformative education.

UNGEI harnesses the collaborative advantage of partnership by:

• Linking work at multiple levels – global, regional and country;
• Bringing a gender lens and gender analysis tools to the education sector and other related sectors;
• Articulating a common voice and building a united advocacy and communications’ platform to advance the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals and the Education 2030 Framework For Action;

Towards this end, UNGEI collaborates with key education partners, including Global Partnership for Education, to produce strategic tools such as the UNGEI-GPE Gender-Responsive Education Sector Planning Guidance, a tool aimed at assisting country-level planners and practitioners to integrate gender issues into the sector planning process.

To strengthen efforts to monitor the global education goals with a focus on trends in gender equality and education, UNGEI supports the Global Education Monitoring Report (GEMR), and the annual publication of the Global Education Monitoring Report: Gender Review.

UNGEI is committed to promoting evidence building and the sharing of effective programming strategies in girls’ education and gender equality. In 2016, UNGEI released findings from a 3-year initiative, the Good Practice Fund, shedding light on valuable tools, strategies, and interventions in girls’ education and gender equality.

UNGEI gives particular attention to efforts to ensure that schools remain safe and supportive places for learning. UNGEI is proud to co-host with UNESCO, the Global Working Group to End School-Related Gender-Based Violence (SRGBV), which brings together over 40 organizations for joint advocacy, research, and standard setting. In 2016, UNGEI also launched the Government of Canada funded project, ‘Education Unions Take Action to end SRGBV’ in partnership with Gender at Work and Education International. The project supports 10 education unions in Sub-Saharan Africa to engage union members to combat gender-based violence in and around schools.

If you would like to learn more about the work of UNGEI and girls’ education, access UNGEI and partner publications and resources, you can do so via the UNGEI website. You can also follow us on social media on our twitter handle @UNGEI or find us on facebook.

For partnerships and collaboration inquiries contact nfyles@unicef.org.

In recent years, Brazil has made many positive strides forward in the area of gender equality. This notwithstanding, according to the Minister of the Secretariat on Policies for Women, Eleonora Menicucci, inequalities continue to exist due to the patriarchal mentality that shapes Brazilian society.João Peres, Rede Brasil Atual (13 April 2012). “Para ministra, “mentalidade patriarcal” atrapalha mulheres no mercado de trabalho” (Mister states the “patriarchal mentality” disrupts women’s involvement in the labour market”. Retrieved 20 October 2012. This situation raises the questions (i) as to what are the attitudes and practices of adult and younger men in Brazil, that is, whether, and, if so, to what extent, they adhere to more rigid views about Masculinities; and (ii) as to whether policy and other efforts in the country, concentrated on improving the status of women, have included due attention to the role of men and boys in achieving gender equality.

Men’s attitudes and practices in Brazil

Substantial literature and statistics exist with respect to Brazil , including female-to-male ratios on levels of education and participation in the labour market, and rates of Domestic violence against women in Brazil .The primary source of such data is the Brazilian Institute for Geography and Statistics, known as: Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE). Literature and updated statistics on men’s attitudes and practices in Brazil, revealing levels of patriarchism and the extent of masculinities, are however limited.

A key document in this regard is a report on an “International Men and Gender Equality Survey (IMAGES)”, prepared in 2011, by the International Center for Research on Women (ICRW) and Instituto Promundo ,Barker, G., Contreras, M., Heilman, B., Singh, A., Verma, R., Nascimento, M. (January 2011). “Evolving Men: Initial Results from the International Men and Gender Equality Survey (IMAGES)”. Washington, D.C.: International Center for Research on Women (ICRW) and Rio de Janeiro: Instituto Promundo. Retrieved 19 October 2012. which discusses the results from a comprehensive household questionnaire in Brazil, amongst other countries, on men’s attitudes and practices on a wide variety of topics related to gender equality. Unless otherwise specified, the source of the information in this section is the said report and/or survey.

Gender-related attitudes

To measure men’s and women’s gender-related attitudes in Brazil, the survey included the Gender Equitable Men (GEM) Scale, a collection of attitude questions that has now been widely used in diverse settings and has consistently shown high rates of internal reliability.The Gender Equitable Men (GEM) Scale was originally developed by the Population Council and Instituto Promundo with young men aged 15-24 years. The original scale includes attitudinal statements about different dimension of men’s gender attitudes. The scale has since been validated in house-hold research in more than 15 countries. The results were as follows:

Domestic activities

The vast majority of men in Brazil – 92% – said they are satisfied with the current, and highly unequal, division of household duties. Admittedly, women’s reports of satisfaction with the current division of domestic duties, at 77%, is not much lower.

Parenting and Men’s Exposure to Campaigns Related to Fatherhood

39% of the men interviewed stated they provided daily care for children; this contrasted with women’s perception, with only 10% reporting that their male partners provided daily care for children.

Whereas Brazil has a national policy supporting a woman’s right to have someone of their choice (presumably the father) present during childbirth, yet implementation has been far less than universal, with as many as 54% of men reporting they were not present for the birth of their child. Only 7% reported to have been in the delivery room, whilst 39% were elsewhere in hospital. Yet, Brazilian men are accompanying women to prenatal visits at a high rate of 78%. Although not stated in the report, the reasons for these numbers may be related to the fact that, in accordance with the 2009 statistics released by the Ministry of Health in Brazil, 43% of the pregnancies in Brazil are delivered by caesarean section (despite that only 15% are medically necessary).Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE) (2 September 2009). “IBGE divulga Indicadores Demográficos e de Saúde”. Retrieved 21 October 2012.

Only 15% of the Brazilian men surveyed encountered a campaign promoting fathers’ involvement. 8% had participated in activity to promote fathers’ involvement.

Health Practices and Vulnerabilities

Research has affirmed that culturally dominant forms of Masculinities, which often urge men to practice strict emotional control and cultivate a sense of invulnerability, serve as barriers to health- and help-seeking behavior or encourage some men to engage in practices detrimental to their own health and that of their families. These health patterns have high costs for women, children, societies and men themselves. Men’s shorter lives mean less productivity and curtailed participation as caregivers and intimate partners. Men’s alcohol and substance abuse is a factor in men’s use of intimate partner violence.

In Brazil, men’s reports of regular abuse of alcohol, with 69% of the men confirming abuse, contrasts sharply to the number of women, 20%, confirming abuse of their own. Similarly, men had relatively low rates of HIV testing, consistently lower than women’s rates of testing, with only 35% of the men confirming that they had sought an HIV test, against a total of 65% for women.

Intimate partner violence

24% percent of the men in Brazil reported lifetime rates of using intimate partner violence (IPV). There were slightly higher rates of victimization, with 28% of the women interviewed affirming they were the victims of IPV.

With regards to knowledge and attitudes about policies and laws promoting gender equality and men’s exposure to messages and campaigns about violence against women (VAW), the following results emerged:

Commitments made by the Brazilian Government

Recent commitments made by the Brazilian government would indicate that there is a growing awareness, on a political level, that efforts towards gender equality necessitate that attention is directed not only towards women but also towards men.

In 2003, Brazil hosted an expert group meeting organised by the United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW), entitled “The role of men and boys in achieving gender equality”United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women (2003). “The role of men and boys in achieving gender equality”. Based on Expert Group Meeting organized by DAW in collaboration with United NationsDP, International Labour Organization (ILO) and Gender Equality and United NationsAIDS from 21-24 October 2003 in Brazil. Retrieved 14 October 2012. and, in 2009, it hosted the Event:2009-03-29 Global Symposium: Engaging Men and Boys in Achieving Gender Equality (Rio, Gender Equality in Brazil), bringing together NGOs, policy makers and representatives from the private sector, in order to build, strengthen and expand a growing international network of programs, activists and policy makers dedicated to engaging men and boys in gender equality.

On a more domestic level, Brazil has implemented some policies of its own in order to engage men in gender equality:

Violence against women

Gender-based violence appears to be the policy issue that many men have heard about in Brazil (see above). Indeed, the promulgation of Law 11.340, known as the Maria da Penha law , in 2006, generated an unprecedented awareness about the grade of violence committed by Brazilian men in domestic settings (see: Domestic violence against women in Brazil ). But the question remains whether hitherto men are seen as the cause of this problem or also as part of the solution. In this regard, we may assert that the government has made some efforts to include men, including through:

• the promulgation of Law 11.489, in 2007, establishing 6 December as the National Day of Mobilization of Men to End Violence against Women (Dia Nacional de Mobilização dos Homens pelo Fim da Violência contra as Mulheres);JusBrazil. “Lei nº 11.489, de 20 de junho de 2007” (Law no. 11.489, of 20 June 2007). Retrieved 14 October 2012.
• the launch of the campaign “United Men for the End of Violence Against Women (Homens Unidos pelo fim da Violência contra as Mulheres)[“Homens Unidos pelo fim da Violência contra as Mulheres” http://homenspelofimdaviolencia.com.br/] – website. in 2008, as Brazil’s response to “UNiTE to End Violence against Women”, the UN’s world campaign to mobilize national leaders to end violence against women.United Nations. “About UNiTE”. Retrieved 21 October 2012. This represents the first time Brazil has focused a campaign on gender violence on men and, through the collection of signatures, it seeks to raise awareness about the importance of engaging men towards a more just and egalitarian society, the full implementation of the Maria da Penha Law and public policies aimed at ending violence against women; and
• a bill for the inclusion in the curriculum of basic education of content regarding violence against women and the prevention thereof, which would be available to boys as it would to girls.Homens pelo fim da violência contra as mulheres (21 September 2012). “Novos projetos aprovados no Senado”. Retrieved 21 October 2012.

Although all these initiatives represent a step in the right direction, it is noteworthy that there are no policy initiatives directed at those men who have committed violence against women.

Health, family planning and parenting

With regards to health issues, the Brazilian Government has sought to focus on men through:

• the federal government’s establishment of a National Policy for the Health of Men (Política Nacional de Atenção à Saúde do Homem),BRASIL.gov.br (Brazilian government website). “Política Nacional de Saúde do Homem” (National Policy for the Health of Men). Retrieved 14 October 2012. aimed at encouraging men to recur to medical health services.

With a view to help Brazilian society in family planning, the policy seeks to encourage any interested party to recur to a vasectomy by ensuring ease of access by men to the procedure and the possibility of surgery in a medical clinic, without the need for hospitalization.BRASIL.gov.br (Brazilian government website). “Vasectomia”. Retrieved 21 October 2012.

The policy also seeks to encourage men to participate in their female partner’s pregnancy consultations. Moreover, according to the policy, the obstetrician who meets the couple is required to invite the man to do some tests, including tests for hepatitis B and C, HIV, and syphilis, as well as blood tests to detect the presence or absence of diabetes and verify levels of cholesterol.BRASIL.gov.br (Brazilian government website). “Pré-natal masculino”. Retrieved 21 October 2012.

Whilst the above policy initiatives all point towards a stronger commitment on the part of the Brazilian government towards gender equality and towards the inclusion of men in family planning and life, Brazil may appear to fall short of its commitments in regards to paternity leave, with laws that provide men with just five days of paid leave (paid through national social security taxes).Article 7 of the Brazilian Federal Constitution of 1988. See: Guia Trabalhista. “Férias e Licença-Paternidade” (Holidays and Paternity-leave). Retrieved 21 October 2012.

Other considerations

When assessing men’s attitudes and behaviour, it must be borne in mind that Brazil has a very unequal society. In recent years, there has been a growing awareness of the ways in which gender norms interact with income and education inequalities to create specific gendered vulnerabilities for men. Thus, statistics will usually reveal that men with higher income and educational levels tend to be more aware and involved in gender equality and have less rigid masculinities.See statistics from: Barker, G., Contreras, M., Heilman, B., Singh, A., Verma, R., Nascimento, M. (January 2011). “Evolving Men: Initial Results from the International Men and Gender Equality Survey (IMAGES)”. Washington, D.C.: International Center for Research on Women (ICRW) and Rio de Janeiro: Instituto Promundo. Retrieved 19 October 2012. Under these premises, any effort on the part of the Brazilian Government to encourage men’s role in achieving gender equality would necessarily require further efforts to diminish general income and educational inequalities throughout the country.

Activities carried out by NGOs and networks

Whilst efforts by the Brazilian government to advance gender equality with a view to men’s role may be regarded by some as moderate, several non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and networks operating in Brazil have endeavoured to include, and advocate the inclusion of, men and boys in achieving gender equality.

Former amongst these are:

• ECOS Comunicação em Sexualidade (São Paulo);
• Instituto PAPAI (Recife);
• Instituto Promundo (Rio de Janiero);
• Instituto NOOS (Rio de Janeiro);
• Pró-Mulher, Família e Cidadania (São Paulo);
• Rede de Homens pela Equidade de Gênero (RHEG) (Network of Men for Gender Equity).

Some programmes and campaigns that have been launched in Brazil include the following:

Laço Branco

Laço Branco (White Ribbon),Laço Branco – official website. the Brazilian version of the White Ribbon Campaign,White Ribbon Campaign – official website. seeks to mobilize men and boys to never commit, condone, or remain silent about violence against women. Laço Branco has been active in Brazil since 1999, and is composed of Insituto PAPAI as the National Secretariat, Instituto Promundo, Instituto NOOS and Pro-Mulher, Família e Cidadania.

Machismo Não Combina com Saúde

Machismo Não Combina com Saúde (Machismo and Health Don’t Mix), was launched to encourage men’s participation in health services and to sensitize health professionals about the importance of working with men. The campaign is based on the premise that health services-related efforts with men should be grounded in understandings of how rigid norms of masculinities influence men’s health-seeking behaviours and their health risks. The campaign is an initiative of the Rede de Homens pela Equidade de Gênero (RHEG) and is coordinated by Instituto PAPAI and Núcleo de Pesquisas em Gênero e Masculinidades (Gema/UFPE).Instituto PAPAI. “Machismo e Saúde”. Retrieved 22 October 2012.

Dá licença, eu sou pai!

The national campaign Dá licença, eu sou pai! (Give leave, I am a Father!) was designed to encourage men to exercise the right as caretaker, soliciting a paternity leave in the birth or adoption of a child. The campaign also promotes public mobilization to seek the current paternity leave from five days to at least one month. This law is being circulated in the House of Representatives. The campaign is an initiative of the Rede de Homens pela Equidade de Gênero (RHEG), and is coordenated by Instituto PAPAI.Instituto PAPAI. “Dá Licença, eu sou pai!”. Retrieved 22 October 2012.

Q homem

The Q homem (Q men) campaign is part of a strategy to engage men in initiatives for the promotion of gender equality and the prevention of violence against women under a collaborative project between Canada and Brazil, with the authorization of the Brazilian Agency of Cooperation (Agência Brasileira de Cooperação (ABC)). Organizations responsible for its implementation include Instituto Promundo, Instituto PAPAI, and the White Ribbon Campaign in Canada. One of the projects objectives is the propagation of a strategy of sensibilization of men about gender relations in the work place, reflecting specific recommendations from various studies developed by UN agencies and international specialists.Promundo. “Campanha Q homem”. Retrieved 22 October 2012.

Program H

In 1999, Instituto Promundo, together with ECOS Comunicação em Sexualidade, Instituto Papai, and Salud y Género ( Mexico ) – in collaboration with International Planned Parenthood Federation (IPPF, Western Hemisphere Region) and the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) – developed Instituto Promundo#Program H .Promundo. “Program H: Engaging young men in gender equality”. Retrieved 22 October 2012. With men as the main focus of the programme, the reference to “H” derives from the Portuguese, “homens“, and Spanish, “hombres“, which are the words for “men”.

Program H seeks to engage young men and their communities in critical reflections about rigid norms related to manhood. It includes group educational activities (see the Program H manual on activities with young men), Promundo. “Program H manual on activities with young men”. Retrieved 19 October 2012. community campaigns, and an innovative evaluation model, the GEM scale (see above), for assessing the programme’s impact on gender-related attitudes. After participating in Program H activities, young men have reported a number of positive changes, from higher rates of condom use and improved relationships with friends and sexual partners to greater acceptance of domestic work as men’s responsibility and lower rates of sexual harassment and violence against women.

In 2007, Program H was cited in United Nations Development Program (UNDP) report “50 Jeitos Brasileiros de Mudar o Mundo” (50 Brazilian Ways to Change the World)United Nations Development Program (UNDP) (2007). “50 Jeitos Brasileiros de Mudar o Mundo”. Retrieved 22 October 2012. and in a United NationsICEF (UNICEF) report on the State of the World’s Children.United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) (2006). “The State of the World’s Children 2007: Women and Children: The Double Dividend of Gender Equality”. Retrieved 22 October 2012. In 2008, the UNFPA recognized Program H as an effective strategy for engaging young men in the promotion of sexual and reproductive health in its State of the Population Report.

See also

• Instituto Promundo
• Gender Equality
• Masculinities
• Working with men and boys to advance gender equality

References

External links

• Instituto Promundo – official website
• Instituto NOOS – official website
• Rede de Homens pela Equidade de Gênero (RHEG) – official website
• Instituto PAPAI – official website
• ECOS Comunicação em Sexualidade – official website

The ENP Region

The European Neighbourhood and Partnership (ENP) region consists of the EU’s 17 closest neighboring countries: Algeria , Armenia , Azerbaijan , Belarus , Egypt , Georgia , Israel , Jordan , Lebanon , Libya Moldova Morocco , the Occupied Gender Equality in the Occupied Palestinian Territories Territory, Gender Equality in Syria, Tunisia , Ukraine the Russian Federation  (covered within the EU-Russia Common Spaces framework). The foreign demand for labor depends on the efficiency of the school system in the different countriesKolev, Alexandre. “Social Inclusion and Youth in European Neighbouring.” p.8 European Commission, 2009. Web. 6 Aug 2011. Sándor Czomba, the Hungary Minister of State for Employment, says that a capable and effective education and training system is a starting point for the successful labor market participation of young people“EU and ILO enhancing fight against youth unemployment in Eastern Europe and Caucasus .” ILO, 12th June 2011. Web. 6 Aug 2011.. Another important problem is the prevalence of young people who are neither employed nor in the education system, but who make up what is known as the informal sector. The current and future financing of education is a key issue in the ENP region since it is vital for creating new and better employment prospects. Many national education policies, such as the EGE in Russia (“Ediny gosudarstvenny ekzamen”), which is the Unified State Exam implemented upon High School graduation, have been implemented in order to raise and equalize education standardsEGE Website. Today, however, a large number of young and ambitious people entering the labor market face the daunting challenge of finding a decent job. University graduates are often forced by the market to accept jobs that do not utilize the advanced training they have received. In contrast, others start working before they have reached the age of 15 which is too early for them to also receive a decent education. This region suffers from limited employment opportunities for decent work. The transition of young people from inactivity to the labour market has to be improved. Youth unemployment rates are unusually high with current estimates exceeding 20% of the young labor force. Women and those with lower education levels are among those most at risk of unemploymentKolev, Alexandre. “Social Inclusion and Youth in European Neighbouring.” p.10 European Commission, 2009. Web. 6 Aug 2011.

Gender Disparities

As stated above, women are at a high risk for unemployment in the labor market. Explanations for this often place a heavy weight on the countries’ social attitudes, especially in the Southern ENP countries. Generally though, youth unemployment rates would not be as sky high if a few particular countries were taken out that have extremely high female unemployment rates, such as in Armenia , Georgia , Gender Equality in Syria or in Egypt . In comparison, the unemployment gender gap in Europe reaches only 2%.Kolev, Alexandre. “Social Inclusion and Youth in European Neighbouring.” p.64 European Commission, 2009. Web. 6 Aug 2011

The Transition from School to Work

The transition from school to work is a very important and critical phase experienced by young people since a positive start promises good future prospects, but the effect of a bad or late start is difficult to be inversed. In the ENP region, the share of youth within the working age population (considered to be between 15 and 64 years) ranges from 15%- 35%Kolev, Alexandre. “Social Inclusion and Youth in European Neighbouring.” p.46-52 European Commission, 2009. Web. 6 Aug 2011. Throughout the even younger population internationally, Child labour are lower in the ENP countries, which are even lower than in other countries. However, Moldova is an exception where 1/3 of the youngsters are employed and drop out of school. In the Eastern region, most of the children are able to combine school and work. Gender differences can only be seen in some countries, such as in Egypt Gender Equality in Gender Equality in Syria, where boys are more likely to work than girls. The reason for the difficulty for young people not finding a well-suited job is due to the limited employment opportunities and low-quality jobs. In many labour markets one can find many, small monopolies that forbid the creation of new perspectives for new ideas. The aspect of corruption and the question of having “contacts” also handicaps the young generation in the market. The highest youth unemployment rates are found in Armenia , Egypt , Georgia Tunisia . Not many significant statistics are found for the discouraged youth that have given up the search. The time from after graduation until finding work is crucial. In Egypt , for example, a person aged 20-24 has to look for employment for an average of nearly three years. Limited opportunities sometimes force youth towards migration to other countries. Unfortunately, lower levels of education and skills often lead them to the worst type of migration, Trafficking of Women Kolev, Alexandre. “Social Inclusion and Youth in European Neighbouring.” p.46-52 European Commission, 2009. Web. 6 Aug 2011 .

The Impact of the Financial Crisis

According to the International Labour Organization ( ), from 2007 to 2009, the worldwide youth unemployment rate has increased to 13%, which means that nearly 81 million young people are unemployed. This is stated to be a new record since 1991“EU and ILO enhancing fight against youth unemployment in Eastern Europe and Caucasus .” ILO, 12th June 2011. Web. 6 Aug 2011.. The ILO speaks of the “lost generation”, when talking about the young people who have lost their last hope. 152 million young people, or about 28% of all the young workers in the world, worked but remained in extreme poverty in households surviving on less than $1.25 per person per day in 2008“World economic crisis has spurred a record increase in youth unemployment says ILO” ILO, 11th August 2011. Web. 6 Aug 2011. The economic and financial crisis had its worse impact on the developing countries. In Russia, the overall unemployment rate for youth was 14.4% in 2007, breaking it up under the gender categories; 14,4% unemployed males and 14.7% unemployed women”Index Mundi.” Youth Unemployment Rate- Economy- Russia. United Nations Statistics Division, n.d. Web. 6 Aug 2011. .. Even if this does not show a large difference in numbers, women are still considered to have significantly lower chances of finding employment after the crisis. Those large numbers are oftentimes explained by a lower number of entry-level job openings and reeducations within employed staff. Countries that were on the top of those indicators are the now famous cases of Greece Italy and Spain . Although some of the experienced employers had to leave during this time, they were still preferred to stay rather than hiring new, inexperienced participants of the labour marketGoncherova, Elena. “Youth unemployment rate across the globe is highest in 20 years.” RT. N.p., 17th August 2010. Web. 6 Aug 2011.

Men during the Crisis

Internationally, except in the US and some EU countries, women were the ones most effected by the crisis- laid off the most frequently and declined in interviews. Protests in Southeast Asia occurred, since men aged 35 years and older where considered to be the most “thick-skinned” and so the ones who had the most stable positions during the The impact of the global financial crisis on women. On the other hand, some statistics have shown that in the US and the EU, men had a higher unemployment rate than women, explaining that in general, women remain calm and are able to cope better with Gender Differences in Responses to StressGoncherova, Elena. “Youth unemployment rate across the globe is highest in 20 years.” RT. N.p., 17th August 2010. Web. 6 Aug 2011.

Their Well-being

The lack of opportunities, a large informal sector, short-time jobs, low investment, corruption and finally the financial crisis leads to dissatisfaction, mental health issues and youth poverty which has a negative impact on the well-being of the youth. But, is it really a “lost generation”? The youth bulge, especially in the southern ENP countries will impose high pressure on the labor market, similar as onto the education systems. Thus, many initiatives were and will be taking off to increase the standards of education and to shrink the “miss-match” in skills between countriesKolev, Alexandre. “Social Inclusion and Youth in European Neighbouring.” p.67 European Commission, 2009. Web. 6 Aug 2011. The ENP countries will be urged to create new and better jobs for the sake of their future economic health. Political agenda is crucial to challenge the social attitudes considering gender, corruption and monopolies. Effective strategies are needed to create jobs for the future generations.

See also

• Gender Equality in employment, education and entrepreneurship
• Different gender reactions to unemployment
• The impact of the global financial crisis on women

References