Introduction

Most of the employment in Thailand is concentrated in the agricultural sector (41.1 percent of the labour force in 2011 was working in this sector)Thailand’s progress in agriculture: Managing transition and sustaining productivity growth ODI website,(2010) Retrieved 24 July 2012. The development of the country’s economy strongly depends on agricultural production. However, Thailand’s National Economic and Social Development Strategic planhttp://eng.nesdb.go.th/Retrieved 25 July 2012 focuses on the growth of the country’s development such as the GDP http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_domestic_product…Retrieved 25 July 2012, infrastructure, transportation and construction. These are the reasons why workers prefer to work in urban rather than rural areas. Therefore, farmers, especially women who are in the agricultural sector, move to the cities with high expectations of better economic opportunities. People also have increasingly more opportunities to study. The younger generation is among the one that thinks that the agricultural sector is hard work, with uncertain income and unsecure welfare, and therfore prefers to work in the industry and service sectors. Rate in agriculture and non-agricultural work. Source: National Statistical Office (2011), Survey of Working, 1990-2011 National Statistical Office Thailand,(2003) http://service.nso.go.th/nso/nsopubli…/news_lfsdirect.jspRetrieved 26 July 2012 The above chart demonstrates that the working pattern of the Thai workforce has definitely changed. Most of the workers have moved from the agricultural sector to the non-agricultural sector since Thailand faced the economic crisis in 1997, when the number of workers in the agricultural sector and those in the non-agricultural sector was not that different (16.5 million). In 1998, following the economic crisis and as the economy began to recover, many workers returned to work in the agricultural sector, which increased the number of non-agricultural workers again. Since 1999, the non-agricultural workers are the majority of wokers in the agricultural sector. The differences are more striking. If the trend continues, we estimate that if an agricultural country like Thailand wants to keep its name of the “World’s Kitchen” National Statistical Office Thailand,(2003) Land ownersRetrieved 26 July 2012, the country may have to rely on migrant workers more to replace the missing Thai workers in the agricultural sector. This issue of potential labour shortage is a priority for Thailand.

The story of Somsri

Somsri is one of many women that moved from the province of Roi Et, in Northeastern Thailand to work in the city. She used to have land, a house property and she was working in the agricultural sector. Due to severe droughts and as it was becoming difficult to perceive a regular income, she decided to start a business by selling noodles in Bangkok. She thought that moving to the city would improve her living conditions. Now she says that she enjoys a good living standard in Bangkok, but she misses her home. As soon as she has gathered enough savings, she says she would like to return home. Somsri is just one example of several hundred families that think about working in the capital city to make their lives better and improve the well-being of their families.

Female labour migration from rural to urban areas

The information above demonstrated how quickly the values and attitudes of people who live in the country today changed, as more and more workers come to seek a job in the city. There is a number of sectors such as manufacturing, the industrial sector and trade that continue to grow. This type of work requires delicate care and does not require as much effort as the type of work that can be found in the agricultural sector, so women are able to find employment relatively easily.

Reasons why women want to move to urban areas

1. Quality of life: a good income is needed to sustain a good standard of life, and the city offers more opportunities to achieve this.
2. Education: most workers who are in the agricultural sector have a relatively low level of education. By moving to the cities, women have more opportunities to complete their education.
3. The age of the workforce: The older generation remains in the village and is not able to make a living alone. So by moving to the cities, the younger generation helps their parents and grand-parents to enjoy a good living standard.
4. The attitude of people: young people find work in the agricultural sector to be very hard and prefer to find easier work in the cities. Therefore, it is inevitable for women to play a role in the labour market as much as men.

The impact of female labour migration

The effect of moving residents out of the rural economy

Income coming from remittances is sent back to the original local population, which has a positive consequence on the distribution of income among the rural population.

The impact on the economy

1. Unemployment and under-employment: due to the high level of female migration to the cities, there is an over-supply of labour. In addition, many employers are using new technology to substitute female labour, which has led to higher unemployment levels. Furthermore, many migrant women are unskilled workers, so they have to accept lower wages. This often means that women demonstrate and call strikes to ask for higher wages.
2. The issue of housing and urban congestion: migrant workers first start off in the city by living with relatives or friends until they find work and have enough savings to live on their own. Some workers have gathered to live in slum areas, having no family or friends in the cities.
3. The homeless: women immigrants who are unemployed face extreme poverty conditions. They decide to live in the street and beg for money, which can sometimes lead to substantial income, in which case they decide to keep doing it and lose interest in finding a job.
4. Crime: some migrant women have no job or income, which means that they resort to robbery and theft acts.
5. Drugs, Slums and ghettos: the younger generation of those living in slum areas can become addicted to drugs and some of them decide to enter the drug trade and make it a career.
6. Prostitution: women who migrate to cities want some of the work that is easy and pays well. Some of them become prostitutes, others work as waitresses in a restaurant, employees in a massage parlor, or as beauticians.
7. Public health: Due to drugs and prostitution, the population is more exposed to drug addiction and venereal diseases such as HIV AIDS HIV & AIDS in Thailand http://www.avert.org/thailand-aids-hiv.htm…Retrieved 26 July 2012.
8. The family: both women and men who move into the capital will send money back to their families in the rural areas, while their children are looked after by the grand-parents. But some workers do not send back remittances, which can cause problems for their children and family.

The migration of women workers from rural areas to cities: some solutions

1. To reduce the unemployment rate and the migration of women workers, the government should use fiscal and monetary measures to develop the skills of workers to meet the needs of firms in the community properly. This would also ensure that the workers are paid fairly.
2. Promotion of social security measures. Expanding the scope of the welfare of labor. In particular, the protection of children and women, the health, safety protection systems and in the workplace.
3. Implement measures to protect women from being exploited by brokers and employers, especially in terms of the minimum wage.

See also

• Filipina Migration
• Women migrants' remittances
• Migrant Workers in Latin America
• Migration: a gender perspective
• Srinakharinwirot University

References

Department of Employment. (2012). Labor Statistic. ,available at http://www.doe.go.th/index1.php

Group 10

Wikigender University student article Thailand, School of Economics and Public Policy, Srinakharinwirot University.

Introduction

A culture of migration has emerged in the Gender Equality in the Gender Equality in the Philippines, one of the world’s largest labour exporting countries with one in ten Filipinos living abroad. Female migration has continued to grow and women migrants now outnumber men in the Philippines. Over half of all Filipinos living abroad are womenIOM report 2010 states 51.1% and they have become a prominent feature of Filipino migration and wider international mobility. In fact, the presence and economic contribution of women to international migration has become more and more important. Now, as women migrate independently and, in many cases, become a household’s principal income earner, the “feminisation” of migration is increasingly evoked. 

Motivations & Causes

Macro-level: State policy

When considering the motivations and causes for Filipina mobility at the macro-level, state policy helps to explain the phenomenon. The government of the Philippines exhibits a huge openness towards migration, particularly Female Migration . It promotes and pursues gender-selective labour migration with an emphasis on domestic and care work for women and with the aim of securing the benefits of remittances.

The[Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (POEA), Philippine Overseas Employment Administration, regulates overseas recruitment and protects the rights of migrant workers. Having ratified the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of all Migrant Workers and Members of their Families (ICRMW) in 1995, the Filipino government also works with governments of destination countries in order to protect and guarantee rights for Overseas Filipino Workers. The Commission on Overseas Filipinos primarily “registers and provides pre-departure orientation seminars to emigrants”.Commission on Filipinos Overseas, Official Website, About Us Section Accordingly, an increasing number of schools have been created in order to train female care workers before they go overseas, additionally prompting rural to urban migration within the Philippines prior to departure.International Organisation for Migration (2009), Gender and Labour Migration in Asia, p. 28 The Overseas Workers’ Welfare Administration, whose mission is “to protect and promote the welfare and well-being of Overseas Filipino Workers” Overseas Workers’ Welfare Administration, Official Website, About OWWA Section, has branches in principal destination countries and supports families with relatives abroad. The Central Bank also works on enhancing the financial products and services available to migrants and migrant families. Finally, an Overseas Absentee Voting Act cementing the Filipino migrant’s transnational citizenship as well as an Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act were introduced in 2003.

All these factors undoubtedly create an environment in which Filipinas are encouraged to migrate and feel assured and protected during their migratory experience.

Micro-level

In the Philippines, there are several conditions that are conducive to female mobility. Firstly, Filipino women have more autonomy than in various developing states. For example, in many cases, it is the wife who manages the household finances Oishi, Nana (2002), “Gender and Migration: an Integrative Approach”, The Centre for Comparative Immigration Studies, p.12 and women are not inhibited from making independent decisions. In fact, it is believed that one-sixth of Filipinas never consult their family members about their decision to migrate.Oishi, Nana (2002), “Gender and Migration: an Integrative Approach”, The Centre for Comparative Immigration Studies, p. 13 

Secondly, Filipinas experience low salaries and limited opportunities for employment in the Philippines whilst, at the same time, being more educated in comparison to other Southern migrants. Moreover, extended kinship relations prevail in Filipino society making many women feel responsible to provide for their wider family.Oishi, Nana (2002), “Gender and Migration: an Integrative Approach”, The Centre for Comparative Immigration Studies, p. 11

On top of this, one can add the influence of migrant networks, friends and relatives already abroad, and the possibility of fleeing an unhappy marriage. Given that Divorce is illegal and separation condemned, migration may often provide the yearn for an escape route. Therefore, amongst Filipinas, there exists, in conjunction with state policies, the desire and motivation at the micro-level as a precondition for emigration.

Meso-level

Combining the macro- and micro-level factors favourable to migration creates a social environment in which international female mobility is encouraged and embraced. This is what Oishi refers to as “social legitimacy” Oishi, Nana (2002), “Gender and Migration: an Integrative Approach”, The Centre for Comparative Immigration Studies, p. 13, which can be seen to work at the meso-level in the Philippines. Due to continued state policies, female migration is socially accepted and even promoted in the media. Filipino society is one in which women are educated, economically active and mobile, both internally and internationally. It is also one that has a long history of Feminism and female involvement in the fight for Human rights. Female migrants are also often considered a more reliable source for supplementing family incomes than males. 

Filipina migrants: heroines or victims?

National heroes…

In 1988, President Cory Aquino referred, for the first time, to the overseas Filipino population as national heroes. This image has been sustained and popularised to the extent that overseas Filipino workers are even endowed with a national holiday in their honour, celebrated on the 7th June every year. As by far the country’s largest export, Filipino migrant workers play an important role in the country’s nation-building and development policy, aimed at improving the economy and standards of living. Remittances therefore make up to 13% of the country’s GDP,See introduction in Camroux, David (2008), “Nationalising Transnationalism? The Philippine State and the Filipino Diaspora”, Les études du CERI, no 152, Centre d’études et de recherches internationales, Sciences Po with inflows reaching 19 billion US dollars in 2009,International Organisation for Migration (2010), World Migration Report 2010, p. 168 a figure that has consistently increased over the years. Remittances are also the single most important source of income for Filipino households with overseas migrants. Given that women constitute over half of the migrant population and that they are often stated as sending back more remittances than men, the state is effectively reliant upon female migration for its economic development.

Bridging the gender gap

Filipina migrants can also be seen as contributing to increased Gender Equality in the sense that their migratory experience provides them with a feeling of liberation and independence. Positing the female as the main income earner of a household also has the potential to change traditional, patriarchal gender roles, providing women with more power and autonomy. Nevertheless, the repercussions for constructions of masculinity could be a source of conflict, as men are obliged to stay at home or assume a less dominant role. The Filipina migrants have also acquired more political clout, becoming active “rights conscious” campaigners.Piper, Nicola (2005), “Gender and Migration”, Global Commission on International Migration, p. 30 For example, alongside NGOs and civil society, Filipinas campaigned to achieve a minimum wage for migrants in Gender Equality in Hong Kong in the 1990s.Outcome of “Gender, Migration and Governance in Asia” Conference, December 2002

Or victims of the global capitalist system?

That said, there are various aspects of the Filipina migratory experience that justify the “victim” hypothesis. Studies examining the feminisation of international migration often evoke its association with the illegalisation of labour migration and the increased vulnerability of females migrating alone. The majority of the Filipina labour diaspora in Asia works on a temporary basis in low-skilled jobs. Indeed, several researchers note a tendency towards “downward mobility” for Filipinas in that they occupy jobs that are not only rejected by the local population, but also inferior to their educational qualifications. In destination countries, they are poorly paid, they experience unsatisfactory work, living conditions and they are often ostracised from society. Despite this, they continue to migrate, frequently pressured by the obligation to provide for their familiesLim, L. and Nana Oishi (1996) ‘International Labour Migration of Asian Women: Distinctive Characteristics and Policy Concerns’, in Battistella, G. and Paganoni A. (eds) Asian Women in Migration, Quezon City, Philippines: Scalabrini Migration Center, p. 31 .

Asian destination countries have limited policies for immigrants. They are keen to maintain a system of temporary migration, which fulfils their labour requirements, yet restricts immigrant participation, integration and resettlement opportunities.Asis, Maruja (2003), “When Men and Women Migrate: comparing gendered migration in Asia”, United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women, p. 5 In the majority of cases, immigrants are not protected by legislation or employment acts, making them legally invisible and susceptible to exploitation. In Singapore , for example, Filipinas working in the domestic sector have poor pay and living conditions because, since they do not work in the industrial sector, they are not considered to be “productive”.Asis, Maruja (2003), “When Men and Women Migrate: comparing gendered migration in Asia”, United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women, p. 8 Moreover, if a migrant is exploited or experiencing abuse, there are little or no legal instruments at their disposal. This is especially problematic in the case of domestic workers employed in private homes.

There have been a number of cases signalling the exploitation and victimisation of female Filipino migrant workers overseas. The most famous was the case of Flor Contemplacion in 1995 who was hanged in Singapore for the double murder of a Singaporean boy and another Filipina migrant worker. It is widely believed that Flor was coerced into a confession and that the father of the household was actually responsible. The episode led to a serious deterioration in Filipino-Singaporean diplomatic relations and her story was used by the media and human rights groups as representative of the plight of the Filipina diaspora The story of Flor Contemplacion . Another example was the case of Maricris Sioson in 1991, employed as an entertainer in Japan , whose murder was suspected to have been concealed by Japanese authorities The Death of Maricris Sioson .

Transnationally-split families

In analysing the negative outcomes of gender-selective mobility in the Philippines it is important to mention the potential destabilising effect on the family. Having one parent, or in many cases both, living abroad can have a detrimental effect on the well-being of children left behind although the improved education of children left behind, brought about by remittance gains, has been highlighted. The destabilising effect on the family is particularly problematic on the Asian continent since neither the possibility of naturalisation nor family unification is afforded to migrants by governments. Migration therefore seldom allows for a stable, united family. Scholars often refer to Filipino families as “transnationally-split”For example: Piper, Nicola (2005), “Gender and Migration”, Global Commission on International Migration and underline the increased probability of negative effects on children left behind in the case of an absentee mother.

Conclusion

It would seem that today’s Filipina migrants can still be positioned at the centre of the “heroine-victim” debate. Their impact on development in the Philippines is crucial and the support and recognition they receive from the state is significant. In response to cases such as those of Flor Contemplacion and Maricris Sioson, the government of the Philippines responded with legal and diplomatic measures on protecting migrant worker’s rights and welfare such as the Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act and the ratification of the ICRMW Yamanaka, Keiko & Nicola Piper (2005), “Feminized Migration in East and Southeast Asia: Policies, Actions and Empowerment”, United Nations Research Institute for Social Development p. 30. Filipinos in fact benefit from a more advantageous position in comparison to other intra-regional migrants. In part due to their reputation as reliable, educated and diligent workers, in part due to promotion by the government, Filipinos generally receive better pay and living conditions than other Asian migrants.

However, it is difficult to ignore how advances in female emancipation in the case of Filipina migrants are undermined in the face of continuing exploitation and pressure. The suggestion that though independent migration women may acquire more autonomy and gender equality is challenged by the fact that mass Filipina labour migration as maids, housekeepers and carers is simply reinforcing a patriarchal order in which women occupy domestic roles. Parreñas aptly gauges that “the economic growth of the Philippines in globalisation depends on the maintenance of gender equalities. The ideology of women’s domesticity remains strongly in place as it undergirds the entrance of women into the global labour market” Parreñas, Rhacel Salazar (2008), The Force of Domesticity: Filipina Migrants and Globalisation, New York University Press, p. 173.

Nevertheless, the importance of considering gendered migration and its link to economic and social development, especially in the South, cannot be underestimated. The case of the Filipina diaspora is the most potent example of the phenomenon of feminisation in contemporary international migration. It highlights the gendered motivations and consequences of mobility as well as the increasing importance and impact of female migration, particularly in the Global South. Finally, it illustrates that gender and women, as half of all migrants in the world today, are fundamental elements of migration that should be integrated into migration studies, debate and policy.

References

See also

• Female Migration
• Gender Equality in the Gender Equality in the Philippines

CIWA has developed a reputation for its innovative and unique approaches to providing essential services to immigrant and refugee women. The demand for our services increases with each passing year as Calgary receives the fourth largest intake of newcomers to Canada.

It is the only immigrant serving agency in Calgary offering all-female programs and services. Over the years, CIWA has been honoured to receive recognition for its commitment to immigrant women and their families by the community.

Vision

Women from diverse backgrounds are empowered to reach their goals and dreams as equal and contributing members of Canadian society.

Mission

Calgary Immigrant Women’s Association delivers professional services that facilitate the integration and full participation of women and their families in the community.

Values

• Equality

• Empathy

• Inclusiveness

• IntegrityCIWA Official Website

Services

CIWA provides a number of services to meet the diverse needs of immigrant and refugee women and their families. It offers:

• Language instruction

• Enhanced language training programs

• Employment services -Settlement services

• Legal clinic

• Family services

• Health education

• Family conflict

• Counselling and support

• Parenting programs

• Youth programs

• Housing support

• Volunteer opportunities

• Specialized seniors’ services

• Support securing basic needs

• Tax clinic

• Public access computers

How CIWA helps

CIWA programs and services are designed to be as accessible as possible. Between their staff and the support of hundreds of volunteers, they are able to offer:

• First language support

• Childcare for all programs

• 60 community locations

Whom they help

All immigrant and refugee women and their families are welcome at CIWA.

References

External links

CIWA Official Website

About

The Scalabrini Migration Center (SMC) was established in Manila, the Philippines in 1987. It is dedicated to the promotion of the interdisciplinary study of international migration, with a specific focus on migration questions in the Asia-Pacific region. Aside from research, SMC maintains a resource center specialising in migration literature, publishes the academic quarterly Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, and organises workshops and conferences on migration in Asia.

Current Projects

Youth Migration from the Philippines: Brain Drain and Brain Waste

This project, inserted in the thematic window on youth, employment and migration (‘YEM’) of the Millennium Development Goals Achievement Fund (MDG-F), sponsored by the government of Spain, intends to examine whether some form of brain drain and brain waste occur for the young migrants from the Philippines considering both the marginal tendency of migrants to be employed as professionals as well as the preponderant involvement of young migrants in domestic work.

MISA – Migration Information System in Asia

The Migration Information System in Asia (MISA) intends to develop a system of collecting, reporting and sharing of migration information by participating countries and territories in the region. MISA is implemented and coordinated by the Scalabrini Migration Center in cooperation with a network of cooperators in selected countries in East, Southeast and South Asia.

See also

• International Organization for Migration (IOM)
• Migration: a gender perspective
• The impact of social norms on female migration (2-15 September 2013)

External links

• Scalabrini Migration Center

• Bulleted list item

The integration of female migrants in Thailand

Migration in Thailand

• Regular MigrationCurrent Migration Challenges in Thailand
  • Legal migration (via passport,visa,temporary border pass under MOU)
  • To work,travel,business, etc.
  • Short-stay purpose

• Irregular Migration
  • Illegal migration (people smuggling or human trafficking)
  • Mostly seek a better life or better income
  • Partly migrated due to specific reasons
  • Tendency for long-stay

Women status of migrant population

Migrants in Thailand have to work in difficult and poor conditions, such as in construction sites, the agriculture sector, factories, bars and karaoke bars due to their illegal migration status. Consequently, they have to endure unsafe working conditions with long hours of work and low wages. They tend to live in poorer housing conditions, often crowded and with poor sanitary facilities. The government tried to change the status of migrants from illegal to semi-legal migrants by approval of the policy and regulation by the cabinet, which is completed annually. After the cabinet approval, Ministry of the Interior registers the undocumented migrants, and they receive physical checkups and a health insurance card from the Ministry of Public Health so that they can be granted a work permit from the Ministry of Labour. Every year, the government policy focus alternates between security and the economy. If the policy focusing on state security is approved, the registration is limited and the number of undocumented or unregistered migrants decreases. On the other hand, if the policy focusing on economic outcomes is implemented, the registration process is promoted and the number of registered or documented migrants increases.Migrants health in Thailand.Retrieved 26 July 2013 from http://www.femipol.uni-frankfurt.de/docs/working_papers/wp1/Germany.pdf Since 2008, the policy has changed to encourage semi-legal immigrants to become legal migrants via the nationality approval process by their respective countries, according to the bilateral agreement between Thailand and Cambodia , Lao PDR PDR and Myanmar . Regardless, at the time, there was still a small number of these registered migrants who got their nationality approved by their origin countries.

Migrant’s Health impact

Because of the different standard and quality of health service system among Thailand and its 3 neighboring countries, many migrants carries contagious diseases that were already controlled in Thailand. Pulmonary Tuberculosis, Syphilis, Leprosy, Malaria and Elephantiasis were the 5 most common contagions/communicable diseases. The Diarrhea, Influenza, Dengue hemorrhagic fever were more difficult to eradicate among the undocumented migrants in the urban area. These diseases can also spread into Thai people by many vectors and routes in the tropical climate. The sanitation and environment of the migrant’s communities are poor and because of the un-registration housing, due to the fact that these illegal immigrants are inapplicable to services from local authorities.

• Migrant health strategy

The Ministry of Public health would like to support the security focus policy by prevention of the communicable diseases and reduced the health impact to Thai people and also support the economy focus policy by providing healthy high productive labor to the market. In any case, the change in policy year by year causes difficulty to provide the health care services especially to the unregistered migrants. The Ministry of Public health is concerned about health of the migrants especially contagious diseases that are carried from their origin countries. The physical check up included chest radiography, blood test for Syphilis, Microfilariasis, Malaria and others diseases, urine test for amphetamine and pregnancy for female migrants, test for leprosy and others as request by the physicians as shown in Table 1.Migrants health in Thailand.Retrived 27 July 2013 from http://www.gfmd.org/documents/switzerland/moldova/gfmd_swiss11_moldova_presentation_s3-03b-Thailand-Tharathep.pdf

Table 1 Physical check up for migrants After check up the migrants are classified into healthy group, curable group (0.8-1.2%), and prohibited group ( Figure Figure 1: result of physical check ups from the year 2004 to 2010Migrants health in Thailand.Retrived 27 July 2013 from http://www.gfmd.org/documents/switzerland/moldova/gfmd_swiss11_moldova_presentation_s3-03b-Thailand-Tharathep.pdf”>Migrants health in Thailand”>Migrants health in Thailand.Retrived 27 July 2013 from http://www.gfmd.org/documents/switzerland/moldova/gfmd_swiss11_moldova_presentation_s3-03b-Thailand-Tharathep.pdf

See also

References

Group1 From the left on top Ms.Krichakorn Rungseeborirak Ms.Yuwadee Juntrapakorn Mr.Keito Kusaka From the left, second row Mr.Saswat Kruemanee Ms.Phaniphak Suanmalee Ms.Sutisa Phonsab  

External links

Migrants to Thailand face new exploitation Thailand’s policy towards Irregular Migration: Situation analysis of Burmese migrant workers under Thailand’s Migration Policy The number of migrant workers in Thailand 4 million Economic Contribution of Migrant Workers to Thailand

From rural migration to urban migration

The results of a 2007 survey completed by the National Statistical Office Thailand (NSO) studied the distribution of wealth in Thailand (i.e. land, financial assets, vehicle ownership, etc.). It found that the rich owned 69% of the nation’s wealth while accounting for only 20% of the population. On the other hand, the poor, who account for 80% of population, own only 1% of the nation’s wealth. These statistics could be the result of Thailand’s National Develop Plan which places support on the export industry but lacks backing for the local market. Without aid, Thailand’s internal industry requires an extensive labour force. For instance, in Thailand there has not been yet a sufficient development of technology in order to reform farming land. Without these reforms it will be difficult for the internal industry to gain power and to create a more equal income distribution. Creating a more equal income distribution is important because it was the first priority put forward in order to help the growth of GDP (Gross Domestic Product) in the National Development plan.http://services.nic.go.th/gsic/indexs.php?ds=difference

Migration Rate By Regions , Gender and Age

Quantity and Ratio of Migration

Currently Thailand has 1.2 million migrants (1.8 percent of the whole country). As shown in the pie chart below, 40% of migrants come from the northeast of Thailand. Migrant http://service.nso.go.th/nso/nsopublish/themes/files/migrantSum54.pdf In the chart below, when we compare migration trends from the last four years, we find that the overall migration trend into Thailand is decreasing, except when specifically examining the migration trend into Bangkok, which is increasing. Migration http://service.nso.go.th/nso/nsopublish/themes/files/migrantSum54.pdf

Gender and Age

The male migration rate is higher than the female rate, but both genders’ migration trends are decreasing overall. Migration rate by gender 2549-2552 and 2554 Migration http://service.nso.go.th/nso/nsopublish/themes/files/migrantSum54.pdf In the graph below, we can see that up until 2011, adult migration was higher than other age groups. As for youth migration, in 2009 it was lower while for the other age group migration rates increased. Older people have the lowest percentage of migration over the years. http://service.nso.go.th/nso/nsopublish/themes/files/migrantSum54.pdf

Reasons for Migration from rural to urban areas

The graph below shows that in 2011, half of all the migrants migrated due to family reasons. Migrants primarily migrated in order to follow their family (25.1%), while others migrated back to their homelands (22.8%). Migration rates were higher for employment reasons (to find a job, 15.1%) than for changing jobs (2.7%). 1.Reason http://service.nso.go.th/nso/nsopublish/themes/files/migrantSum54.pdf

Female migrants move to follow their families as well as to return back to their homelands

Migration in Thailand has decreased continuously from 5.1% in 1997 to 2.7% in 2009. This could be explained by the changing distribution of jobs, the education level and improved communication possibilities. This is probably because these improvements are also more accessible to rural populations than in the past. In 2002-2007 the main reason for migrants in Thailand to migrate was because of the following reasons:

1. to follow their family
2. to return back to their homeland
3. to find a job

However, in 2007 Thailand suffered economic difficulties and the main reasons for migrants to migrate changed:

1. to return to their homeland
2. to follow their family
3. their respective habitat

The proportion of women migrating back to their homeland increased from 17.8% in 2002 to 29.2% in 2009. Furthermore, female migrants following their family decreased from 40.5% in 2002 to 27.9% in 2009.http://ihppthaigov.net/publication/attachresearch/142/chapter1.pdf

The current situation of migration in Thailand

Type of work considered important in Thailand

In 2011, most people in Thailand were working in the trade and service sectors (40.7 %), while others were working in the production sectors (20.6 %) and agriculture sectors (38.7%). Type http://service.nso.go.th/nso/nsopublish/download/files/lfsSum54.pdf

The gender gap : trends to equality

The increase of women’s participation in production sectors

Work in the agricultural sector has decreased in the last 20 years (from 65.1% in 1987 to 40.6% in 2010). This is most likely due to the fact that many people moved to other sectors for work. However, work in the production sectors has increased during the last two decades (from 11.7% in 1987 to 19.2% in 2010). In addition, data shows that although the majority of workers in the production sectors are male rather than female, the amount of female workers in the production sector has been increasing during the last two decades from 9.9% in 1987 to 17.0% in 2010. http://ihppthaigov.net/publication/attachresearch/142/chapter1.pdf

Increasing female participation in the private sector

The private sector is highly competitive and difficult to be get into, but offers more opportunities to make a higher income than in the public sector. Thus, having certain skills and abilities are very important in order to have a higher potential to be accepted for a job within this sector. As a result, it is important that women have these skills and abilities in order to participate in the private sector and have a greater economic role in Thailand. Almost all of the jobs in which women were working such as non-income household jobs have continually decreased from 44.8% in 1987 to 22.6% in 2010. On the contrary, women’s participation in the private sectors and as business owners has been continually increasing: the percentage of women in the private sector has increased from 21.3% in 1987 to 33.2% in 2010. The percentage of women who are business owners has increased from 29.9% in 1987 to 31.8% in 2010. It is important to note that the proportion of women who own their own business doubled from 0.8% in 1987 to 1.5% in 2010 http://ihppthaigov.net/publication/attachresearch/142/chapter1.pdf Thehttp://ihppthaigov.net/publication/attachresearch/142/chapter1.pdf

Female participation in science and technology jobs

The labour force in science and technology in Thailand has increased continuously. While men have a much greater presence in science and technology, women’s participation is increasing. For example, the proportion of women in science and technology increased from 29.9% in 2005 to 30.5% in 2009, showing that women are becoming more interested in science and technology jobs. The overall employment rate of science and technology graduates in Thailand has increased from 97.6% in 2005 to 98.2% in 2009. When we classify this statistic by gender, the employment rate of male and female graduates is not so different. In 2009 male graduates had a 98.9% employment rate and females a 97.9% employment rate. http://ihppthaigov.net/publication/attachresearch/142/chapter1.pdf

References

Group 4

Introduction

Transnational migration has occurred for many centuries in Thailand , with immigration to Thailand more common than emigration. The Chinese traders and labourers who arrived in Thailand during the 18th and 19th centuries made up the largest group of immigrants. Diverse nationalities include Indians and Westerners (the largest amount of visitors comes from the Gender Equality in the United States of America of America, the United Kingdom , Germany and Scandinavian countries. The largest expatriate communities in Thailand are located in Bangkok and Pattaya. Also, most of them are retired.)Vlady, Kate. Bending the Law; Breaking the Law : Study on Western Migration to Thailand. The Master of Arts in International Development Studies (MAIDS). Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University. Retrieved June 2013. http://arcmthailand.com/documents/doc…/BENDING%20THE%20LAW;%20BREAKING%20THE%20LAW%20Study%20on%20Western%20Migration%20to%20Thailand.pdf. Aslo, the Japanese have also migrated to Thailand in large numbers. Today, migration and in particular illegal migration, has become a major issue in Thai society. Large populations from neighbouring countries such as Cambodia , Lao PDR (Lao PDR) and Myanmar , started migration to Thailand during the 1990s to escape poverty and political conflict. Whilst most found work, employment has become heavily segregated by gender. The most common age bracket for migrant women is 20 to 39 years old, making up about 52.1 percent of the female migrant labour force. Women aged 40 to 59 years old form about 39.2 percent of this population, while as few as 5.8 percent are aged 15 to 19 years. All migrants, including those from Myanmar, Cambodia and Lao PDR who have entered Thailand illegally are at risk of arrest and deportation under existing Thai migration laws. Corruption exists, with police and immigration officials sometimes exploiting vulnerable migrants, demanding money to prevent deportation. Many migrants, particularly in border areas, report that police have been known to tear up payment receipts and continue to treat migrants as undocumented. Migrants have also been arrested for moving outside the area where they are registered or for failure to be present at the workplace indicated on their work permit card. This means that these migrants sometimes engage in prostitution, retail and hospitality work or work for someone else (in the case that their employer has sub-contracted them to another employer). Today Thailand’s migration policies seek to limit the number of migrants from neighbouring countries and keep the status of migrants temporary. Many individuals arrive in Thailand without any identification or documentation and continue to live and work in Thailand without the required documentation. For example, most of the estimated 200,000 Cambodian workers in Thailand migrated without documentation and identification, but the nationality verification (NV) process is working to improve their legitimacy. Harima, Reiko; & Director, Managing. (2012). Restricted Rights Migrant Women Workers in Thailand, Cambodia and Malaysia. War on Want. http://www.waronwant.org/attachments/WOW%20Migration%20Report%20low%20res….

Reasons for migration [1]

Outgoing Migration

• This mainly related to moving abroad to seek improved income and economic conditions, for example to alleviate rural poverty.

Incoming Migration

• Foreign workers sought to maintain economic growth and fill labour shortages.
• On the western border of Thailand, Myanmar has experienced considerable social, political and economic hardship. With violent repression during the pro-democracy uprising in 1988, and on-going military offensives by the ruling military regime against ethnic nationalities, hundreds of thousands of people have fled, and continue to flee across the border to Thailand. All workers who arrived in Thailand travelled without any documentation, leaving their own country illegally and also entering Thailand illegally.

Some problems include:

• Without legal documentation, cross-border migrants cannot travel independently within Thailand and require agents to negotiate at the numerous army and police checkpoints.
• Restrictions on the rights of the ethnic populations of Thailand (commonly called hill-tribes) also encourage people to use agents.
• The cost of migrating is a root cause of vulnerability. Migrants may sell their assets (e.g. land, animals) or borrow money either directly from agents or from moneylenders who charge huge interest rates. In some cases, employers pay upfront and the money is then deducted from the worker’s subsequent salary. In all of these situations migrants are bonded by debt, either to the moneylender or the employer. The pressure of making money to repay the agent or employer or to buy back assets at home, increases migrants’ risk of exploitation.

Migration challenges [2]

Below is a summary of key migration challenges associated with the movement of people to and from Thailand, in both sending and destination countries.

• Government policy on transnational migration

Thailand does not have an explicit policy on international migration and fails to adequately protect migrants, and in particular the rights of migrant girls.

• Undocumented migration

There is a need for more accurate estimates of the numbers of illegal migrants and profiles of their origins, activities and lengths of stay.

• The impact of transborder migration

There are economic, socio-cultural, environmental and health impacts, as well as legal consequences resulting from population mobility. In particular, emigration from Thailand may contribute to the following: increased remittances sent back home, possibly more job opportunities for unemployed people but also migrants’ separation from their families and legal protection for Thai nationals is an issue. Further studies are required to understand the full impacts of transborder migration. Immigration to Thailand contributes to the following: the dependence on foreign labour for certain types of jobs, the risk of economic stagnation (i.e. shifting from labour-intensive to hi-technology production), the emergence of ethnic minority communities on Thai soil, the spread of infectious diseases and legal problems concerning the status and rights of migrant workers.

• The protection of migrants’ rights

The majority of migrants in Thailand and Thai emigrants abroad are socio-economically disadvantaged compared to the populations in those areas where they have moved. Accordingly, they require additional protection. Thailand asks that countries of destination provide Thai migrants with proper rights in terms of wages, social welfare and other basic human rights. However, no reciprocal offer of the same standards of rights is required to be provided to migrants living on Thai soil. The law just covers for emergency cases; also, illegal immigrants try to avoid connecting to state agencies because they may be detained and sent back to their country of origin.

• The inadequacy of information on transnational migration

Unlike internal migration, information on Thailand’s transborder migration is limited, incomplete, fragmented or unavailable. The Immigration Office provides aggregate numbers of persons who leave and enter the country. However, such numbers do not cover undocumented migration and the published breakdowns of migrants by gender, age, occupation and site of border crossing are inadequate. Thailand and/or the Asia-Pacific region should have a regional information centre on transnational migration to improve the accuracy of available information and data on the issue.

• HIV/AIDS

The sex industry in Thailand has been an important issues since US troops started coming to Thailand for rest and recreation during the Vietnam war. The industry continues to attract attention from the US government, who is concerned about public health issues, since US troops and tourists continue to fuel Thailand’s sex industry. In the early 1990s, Thailand was at the height of an HIV/AIDS epidemic, and migrant female sex workers were serving a clientele with high HIV prevalence. Sex workers who were debt-bonded to employers were unlikely to be able to refuse a customer who wanted sex without a condom and were likely required to service many customers in order to earn enough money to repay debts and hopefully to make some profit.

Migrant Working Group Statistics [3]

  The Migrant working group (MWG) is the organisation that has the responsibility to supervise and perform statistical data analysis on migrant workers to find issues that relate to their labour rights, health, education and activity, to monitor how these situations change and to provide information to a population that is interested in migrant workers’ stories.Huguet, Jerry; Aphicahat, Chamratrithirong; & Natail, Claudia. (2012). Thailand at a Crossroads : Challenges and Opportunities in Leveraging Migration for Development. international organization migration(IOM). 2012 http://www.migrationpolicy.org/pubs/LeveragingMigration.pdf…. Table 1: Migrant Working Group Statistics on January – May 2012

Figure 1: Migrant Working Group Statistics on January – May 2012 According to our study, the number of migrant workers in Thailand under the MOU is less than eight times those working under the NV, meaning there is a loophole in the system of receiving migrants workers: there are inefficiencies by officials in charge of the law and regulation, which leads to many problems such as exploitation of migrants’ rights, their freedom, physical and mental health. It is recommended that the government looks at how the system can be improved in order to better welcome migrants workers and how the implementation of law and regulations can be better controlled. At the same time, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) should play a vital role in inspecting the work of the government, to protect the well-being and the quality of life of migrants.  

• Memorandum of Understandings (MoUs) signed: These express mutual agreements between Thailand with Lao PDR, Cambodia and Myanmar, under which migrant workers are recruited in their country and provided the necessary documents to migrate regularly to Thailand for employment.

• Nationality verification (NV): Migrants from Lao PDR, Cambodia and Myanmar who have entered Thailand illegally and are therefore reside and work illegally in Thailand, are required to have their nationality verified by their own governments for their status to be recognised. After the nationality verification process is complete, migrants may apply for a work permit in Thailand. The Thai government has created a new process for the extension of permits for migrant workers, which in the case of Burmese migrants involves a return to Burma and the recording of detailed biographical information.

See also

• Female Migration

References

• http://arcmthailand.com/documents/documentcenter/BENDING%20THE%20LAW;%20BREAKING%20THE%20LAW%20Study%20on%20Western%20Migration%20to%20Thailand.pdf
• http://www.waronwant.org/attachments/WOW%20Migration%20Report%20low%20res.pdf
• http://www.gaatw.org/Collateral%20Damage_Final/CollateralDamage_THAILAND.pdf
• http://www.unesco.org/most/apmrnw14.htm
• http://www.mwgthailand.org/autopagev4/show_all.php?auto_id=2&TopicPk
• http://www.migrationpolicy.org/pubs/LeveragingMigration.pdf

Group3

ECS 485 B01Current economic problems and issues The members of Group 3 are: 1.Ms.Pattranit Sukumal 2.Ms.Thanchanog Satient 3.Ms.Benyaporn Punto 4.Ms.Panumart Lakthan 5.Ms.Pratinthip Inkhai 6.Ms.Thananan Laohasinnarong (From left to right)

Introduction

Migration is the movement of people across a specified boundary for the purpose of establishing a new or semi-permanent residence. Normally, they move to another country or region to better their material or social conditions and improve the prospect for themselves or their family. Migration in Thailand consists of two trends: Immigration and internal migration.

• Immigration is when foreign workers immigrate into one country from another
• Internal migration is when citizens of one country migrate to urban or industrial cities.

More than 87 percent of external migrants originate from Myanmar , followed by 23% from Lao PDR and a small number also come from Cambodia and other countries. These immigrants usually work in the agriculture and construction sectors across the country. Most come to Thailand because the GDP per capita in these countries is much lower than in Thailand, and more than one-third of the population lives below the poverty line. http://www.nationmaster.com/red/country/th-thailand/imm-immigration&all=1 The World Bank came out with a revised figure of $1.25 at 2005 purchasing-power parity (PPP). The shift of Thai economy from an agricultural to an industrial orientation has increased employment opportunities in the manufacturing and service sectors. As a result, there has been a dramatic decrease in the number of workers in the agricultural sector. It invoked a movement of internal migration from the agricultural sector to the non-agricultural sector.

International Migration Situation in Thailand

As mentioned in the Introduction, internal migration is defined as the movement within one country from one area to another. On example of this is the movement from northeast Thailand to Bangkok and the five peripheral provinces (Nonthaburi, Nakorn phathom, Phatum Thani, Samut prakarn and Samut sakorn) in order to find a better job. http://www.ghs-mh.de/migration/projects/define/define.htm Thailand’s national development plans are helping to influence migration from rural areas to urban sites. Thailand is still a developing country and is slowly trying to transform its economic structure from a primarily agricultural country to a primarily industrial country. Thai people are mostly agricultural workers and tend to move from rural areas to urban ones to find a better salary and improve overall well-being. http://www.un.or.th/documents/tmr-2011.pdf From table 9.1, we can see that the percentage of male migrants was higher than female migrants from 1997 to 2009. The migration trends of male and female migrants seem to increase at the same rate from 1997 to 2002. However, after 2004, we can see that the number of migrants starts to slowly decrease each year. From figure 9.1, even though Thailand has a higher female population than male population, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/th.html we can see that the yearly percentage of male internal migration is greater than female internal migration from 2005 to 2009. The reason that more men migrate to urban areas than women might be due to the nature of the available jobs. There were most likely more opportunities for non-skilled men labour in the three ‘D jobs’ (dangerous, dirty and difficult jobs) because many employers willing to hire men to work in three ‘D jobs’ such as in construction and fishery, more than women. In Figure 9.2 we can see the sex ratio for different migration streams from 2007–2009. During this period, women tended to dominate the migration streams from rural to urban destinations while men were more prominent in urban to rural migration streams. For every 100 females who migrated from rural to urban areas or from urban to urban destinations, there were fewer than 100 male migrants engaged in this type of migration. The exception to this was the year 2008, when there were slightly more men moving from rural to urban areas. Figure 9.3 and 9.4 show that after 1970 there were more female migrants moving from rural areas to the capital city and the five peripheral provinces than male migrants. This is because Bangkok and its five peripheral provinces had a higher demand in the service and manufacturing industries, which required female labour rather than male. During the 1990s, the number of migrants moving to Bangkok decreased because the industrial opportunities expanded into the five peripheral provinces. Migrants chose to move to the five peripheral provinces as a way to to avoid living in the overcrowded Bangkok. In table 9.3, we can observe the differences of male and female migration between two periods of time. Looking at female migration, we can see a decrease in women who work in agriculture and an increase in their work in industries. However, at the same time we can see a decrease in men’s involvement in the industry due to the increased proportion of women filling these jobs. Yet, we can see an increase in the amount of labourers from both sexes in the industry from 2005.

International immigrants in Thailand

International immigrants in Thailand are immigrants mainly from Cambodia , the Lao PDR and Myanmar . There is no way to accurately estimate all of the international migrants in Thailand due to irregularities in migration trends. As a result, we have chosen to focus on these main countries.http://www.un.or.th/documents/tmr-2011.pdf This data (table 9.4) shows the number of migrants who registered for work with the Ministry of Labour (MOL). Among the three countries, the majority of workers were from Myanmar. In 2010, Myanmar immigrants constituted 87 percent of the total registered migrants. The remaining migrants came either from Cambodia or the Lao People’s Democratic Republic in approximately equal numbers. It is most likely that the main reason that citizens of these countries immigrated to Thailand was due to wage gaps. Looking at economic differences by using GDP per capita we can see that the GDP per capita in Myanmar, Laos and Cambodia is only a fraction of that in Thailand. In 2009, the GDP per capita was USD 610 in Cambodia and USD 880 in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic. The figure for Myanmar was not available. Additionally, approximately one-third of the population in each of these countries is below the official poverty line. http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/EXTANNREP/EXTANNREP2011/0,,contentMDK:22969490~menuPK:8121330~pagePK:64168427~piPK:64168435~theSitePK:8070617,00.html Table 9.4Source: Thailand Migration Report 2011 – United Nations in Thailand Table 9.5 shows the types of jobs migrants participate in. In 2011, the greatest number of immigrants were involved in agriculture; the second most common field of work was construction, and the third was seafood processing. Population mobility trends show that female migration is significantly increasing. This means that women have a strong impact on the migratory process. Men and women tend to migrate for different reasons and gender is perhaps one of the important factors shaping migrants’ motivations. Table 9.5Source: Thailand Migration Report 2011 – United Nations in Thailand

Conclusion

Population mobility trends in Thailand, similar to those of other countries, show that female migration is increasing in significance. These evidences suggest that this trend is partly due to gender dynamics, which have a strong impact on the migratory process as they play an important role in an individual’s decision to migrate. Men and women tend to migrate for different reasons and use different channels, and gender is perhaps the most important factor shaping the migrants’ experiences.

See also

• Female Migration

References

Group 4

Introduction

The movement of people searching for a better life is a reality in many countries around the world, whether it is for economic reasons, political reasons or to escape from natural disasters. People migrate within their own countries, mainly from rural to urban areas, but also across borders. Thailand has, through official channels, deployed approximately 150,000 migrant workers a year since 1999. The number of migrants in 2010 was 143,795 (see table 1.5 below, of which 62% went to economies in Asia and 28% went to the Middle East and Africa;only 16% of the migrant workers were women. This article specifically looks at the economic, social and environmental determinants (or push factors) of female migration from Thailand.

Economic factors

Although economic factors are not always the main reason, it is one of the most important reasons behind female migration from Thailand. Thai women seek to emigrate in order to escape from situations of unemployment, poverty, low wages or limited economic opportunities. Poverty and inequality between men and women as well as the access to information are powerful factors influencing the decision for women to migrate. Figure 1 shows the poverty headcount as a percentage of population, which is quite high compared to developed countries. Poverty could lead to more intense problems such as the difficulty to afford educational fees, especially for women. Figure 1: Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty line (% of population)Source : World Bank, Global Poverty Working Group. Data are based on World Bank’s country poverty assessments and country Poverty Reduction Strategies. Note – National poverty rate is the percentage of the population living below the national poverty line. National estimates are based on population-weighted subgroup estimates from household surveys. Figure 2 shows the unemployment rate by education level in Thailand. The unemployment rate was high in 2002 and then gradually decreased between 2002 and 2009. From 2009 to 2011, the unemployment rate decreased rapidly and there was a slight decrease between 2011 and 2012. Figure 2: unemployment rate by education level in Thailand. Unemployment rate high at 2002.Source : National Statistical Office Thailand Note: Average unemployment in 10 year In many countries, women face discrimination and even gender-based violence. They are also paid significantly less than men for doing the same type of work. Also, the work deemed suitable for women usually attracts lower salaries than work suitable for men. In addition, the domestic work that women are mostly required to conduct in their ‘spare time’ is unpaid. Figure 3 shows that the unemployment of Thai women is not a significant factor in international migration from Thailand: the unemployment rate is quite low in Thailand and women have lower unemployment rates in comparison to men. Figure 3: Unemployment rate of male and female in the labor force in Thailand between 2004 – 2013(1st quarter) Unemployment Rate,National Statistical office, Ministry of Information and Communication Technology, Thailand Figure 4 indicates that there are more employed men than women, which suggests that there may be some obstacles for women to get a job, such as discrimination in the labour market or restrictions that favour men. Figure 4: Employee (per 1,000 person) in Thailand between 2004 – 2013Employee (per 1,000 person) in Thailand between 2004 – 2013, National Statistical office, Ministry of Information and Communication Technology, Thailand Finally, in Figure 5 we can see that the poverty head count index also shows that poverty in Thailand is sharply decreasing. Therefore, determinants for female emigration from Thailand may be caused by other factors such as higher wages relative to those in Thailand, more economic opportunities, etc. If compared to the same characteristics in terms of wages or salary received while working in the country, there may be an incentive for workers to move abroad, seeking a better quality of life in terms of salary. Figure 5: Head Count Index, Thailand between 2003 – 2011Head Count Index, Thailand between 2003 – 2011, National Statistical office, Ministry of Information and Communication Technology, Thailand

Social and Environmental factors

Female migration is also motivated by social factors, including surveillance by communities and patriarchal traditions that limit opportunity and freedom, getting out of a bad and abusive marriage, fleeing from domestic violence and desiring equal opportunities. In particular, factors that may contribute significantly to the decision to migrate include familial obligations as well as limited social opportunities. For example, discrimination against certain groups of women (such as single mothers, unmarried women, widows or divorced women) drives many women to migrate. However, a significant number of women still migrate as wives because in many countries, in the case of domestic violence, they risk losing their residence rights if they decide to leave their spouses. Migration processes with a gender fccus should be closely scrutinised in order to prevent hidden risks and promote new opportunities for women and their families. Thai women’s decision to migrate depend on many factors: discrimination and exclusion, unfavourable legislation, risks, the impact on those “left behind” (such as children or the elderly), etc. The level of inequality between men and women in decision-making processes are powerful forces influencing female migration. For example, when women get married young, they receive little and poor-quality education, bear many children at a young age, lack access to credit and banking and have very few rights. They therefore lack the decision-making capacity and necessary resources to migrate. Another factor that can cause migration is the occurence of natural disasters. Thailand is one of the many countries in the world with a tropical climate. Monsoons happen regularly during the rainy months, so floods are common throughout Thailand. In the rural areas, people suffer from floods in the rainy season and drought in the summer due to insufficient infrastructure. People in the rural areas use insecurity as a reason to migrate to safer places, both in the country and abroad. Even though natural disasters occur around the world, developed countries such as the and Japan have early-warning systems, education and safety campaigns as well as assistance programmes before and in the aftermath of a disaster.

Threats and opportunities for female migration

Opportunities

Migration can contribute to gender equality and female empowerment by providing migrant women with income, status, autonomy, freedom and the self-esteem that comes with employment. Women become more assertive as they see more opportunities opening up before them. Relocating to a new country exposes women to new ideas and social norms that can promote their rights and enable them to participate more fully in society. It can also have a positive influence on achieving greater equality in their country of origin, through the transmission of ideas. In societies where migration increases contact between different countries and their inhabitants, new existential challenges and transcultural dialogue between different groups and subgroups gains more importance. Given the formative role that women play in countries of destination and their important role in formative child care, they have a great influence on the openness of new generations to other cultures — especially considering the kind of relationships they establish with the local population and with other migrants.

Challenges

On the other hand, women from poor environments who have experienced lack of opportunities and violence are likely to become easy targets for traffickers, who promise them a richer economic and social future abroad whilst luring them into forced labour (such as prostitution, sweat-shops and poor domestic work conditions). In this case, prevention efforts such as providing information on the possible risks before, during and post-migration and how to avoid them, are vitally important.

Conclusion

Female international migration might affect Thailand in various aspects. First economically, Thailand may face a lack of labour due to women’s migration as they search for economic opportunities and higher wages compared to what they would have in Thailand. Women want to migrate to achieve a better life with new opportunities, increased income and higher social status. Second, female migration also affects Thailand socially: most families are unable to take their children with them due to overly restrictive migration policies and the high costs of international migration. This would lead to negative behaviour of their children, as women who leave their families fail to provide love and care most needed in their formative care. It has also been proven that children with parents who have not migrated obtain better qualifications than those whose parents are abroad.

References

• http://www.caritas.org/ (7th March 2012), Female face of migration, http://www.caritas.org/includes/pdf/backgroundmigration.pdf
• http://www.policy.doe.go.th/ebook/020400004399_2.doc , Planning and Information Division, Department of employment, Ministry of labour, literature review, 020400004399_2.doc

See also

• Female Migration

Group 1

From left to right: Mr. Tanakorn Chaianekwut, Mr. Jirayut Songkrampoo, Miss Chulalak Kongsook, Miss Preeyaporn Eakthanyawong, Mr. Burakarn Tippayasakulcahi, Mr. Supanut Sawetarpa [Category : Migration] [Category : Wikigender University student article] [Category : Thailand] [Category : Srinakharinwirot University] ]]> https://www.wikigender.org/wiki/female-out-migration-from-thailand/feed/ 0 https://www.wikigender.org/wiki/migration-a-gender-perspective/ https://www.wikigender.org/wiki/migration-a-gender-perspective/#respond Thu, 01 Jan 1970 00:00:00 +0000 http://www.wikigender.org/migration-a-gender-perspective/ This article is the seventh in a series of articles related to Wikiprogress.

The benefits of migration in terms of economic development and country progress have been widely recognised both for sending and receiving countries, and at individual level mobility is an essential part of our lives today. This article tries to look at migration from a gender perspective, and shows some of the positive and negative impacts coming from Female Migration .

Setting the scene

Migration is no longer just a South-North phenomenon – because of more restrictive policies in the North and in an ever-connected world, many countries rely on the benefits of migration for their economies, which generates more South-South migration.OECD (2011), Tackling the Policy Challenges of Migration: Regulation, Integration, Development, Development Centre Studies, OECD Publishing, p. 20 Migrating to another country in the search for better life prospects is traditionally a male venture, although women increasingly migrate as well. Therefore to really understand the migration phenomenon, it is essential to include gender perspective and see the positive and negative effects on migrants’ families.

Some figures

• Between 1960 and 2005, the number of international migrants in the world doubled
• In 2005, about 190 million people (3 per cent of the world’s population) lived outside their country of origin
• Remittances amounting to over $200 billion a year
• The share of women in the world’s population of international migrants is about halfThe World Bank (2008), The International Migration of Women, Palgrave Macmillan, Washington, DC, p. 1
• The top regions of the world with the most women migrants are Oceania, Latin America and the Caribbean, Africa and the Soviet Union, whereas the lowest proportion of women migrants is the Middle EastThe World Bank (2008), The International Migration of Women, Palgrave Macmillan, Washington, DC, p. 2

Migration with a gender perspective

An interesting aspect to look at in the emigration process is what happens when women are left behind. Husbands who emigrate leave their wives to look after the household – traditionally a role held by men – in addition to looking after the well-being of their family.OECD (2011), Tackling the Policy Challenges of Migration: Regulation, Integration, Development, Development Centre Studies, OECD Publishing, p. 94 Remittances sent by their husbands allows the ma more flexible work schedule – in fact, women tend to spend most time on household management and child-rearing rather than on working to generate an income. Women then tend to also work in self-employment rather than in paid work.OECD (2011), Tackling the Policy Challenges of Migration: Regulation, Integration, Development, Development Centre Studies, OECD Publishing, p. 95 The positive effect there is that women become empowered in the sense that they have control over the household finances while their husband is away, therefore gaining more intra-household power.

There is however another phenomenon, that of women leaving their household behind and migrating to a richer country to care for children or the elderly in another family. Like men, women migrate both to support their families and to achieve their aspirations. But a woman leaving her family behind has a rather negative impact on any children staying in the country of origin of the woman – mainly affecting the areas like health, education, social relations and family cohesion. In particular, children left behind tend to experience emotional instability and poor educational achievement. In some cases it can even engender juvenile delinquency and have serious consequences for the social cohesion of an entire community.OECD (2011), Tackling the Policy Challenges of Migration: Regulation, Integration, Development, Development Centre Studies, OECD Publishing, p. 96

Regarding household expenditure patterns, it was found that in Mexico , households with female migrants spend a lot less on education than households without female migrants – which indicates that the sex of the migrant has an impact on the patterns of expenditure when receiving remittances.The World Bank (2008), The International Migration of Women, Palgrave Macmillan, Washington, DC, p. 7 Also, it is interesting to not only see a gender pattern in the way remittances are spent, but also a different pattern among female-headed households, depending on whether remittances received at international or internal. For example it was found that in Ghana , female-headed households receiving internal remittances spent a larger amount of money on Education for All and Category:Health, whereas female-headed households receiving international remittances spent less money on food and more money on durable goods such as housing and health. Finally, it was noted that when households receive Women migrants' remittances , there is less of the budget allocated to education, whereas when households receive remittances from a man, more budget is dedicated to education (this is explained by the fact that men overall spend less money on education than women, also if the children leave with the mother, less will be devoted to education expenditures also).The World Bank (2008), The International Migration of Women, Palgrave Macmillan, Washington, DC, p. 8

In terms of entering the labour market in Gender Equality in the United States of America of America, women migrants’ participation in the labour force is highly dependent on: the education level and the number of years spent in the United States. The number of children and the marital status are also key determinants (for example single women or women married to American men are the most likely to find work). These findings are confirmed by the country of origin of the migrant women, as female migrants from South Asia and the Women in the Middle East and North Women and African Economic Development (MENA) have a lower labour market participation rate than female migrants from Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa, the Caribbean and East Asia. These criteria also impact on wage levels for women migrants.

References

See Also

• Women and Migration
• Effects of Migration on Child Well-Being

Other progress-related articles

• See [Wikigender Progress Series|Wikigender Progress Series]

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